Goddard 1912: 128. Cf. such examples as: "All the people slept, ... all the grizzlies drowned, ... all the elks drowned, ...." [Goddard 1909: 83 No. 4, 6-7]. Exact semantics and application as well as the morphological structure are unclear.
Taldash Galice:kʰʷai3
Jacobs 1968: 184. Attested in the passage "All (kʰʷai) those (Klamath) people shot at him - they say, but he dodged all (kʰʷai) of them too" [Jacobs 1968: 184 No. 6]. Exact semantics and application are unknown.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:ɬu-qʼu2
Kari 2007: 326. Glossed as 'all, everything, everyone'.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:ɬu-qʼu2
Kari 2007: 326; Boraas 2010: 43. Glossed as 'all, everything, everyone'.
Inland Tanaina:tʼančʼ-qʼu4
Kari 2007: 326; Wassillie 1979: 4. Glossed as 'all, everything, everyone'. In [Wassillie 1979], two Inland forms for 'all' are quoted: tʼančʼqʼu and ɬuqʼu.
Iliamna Tanaina:ɬu-qʼu2
Kari 2007: 326. Glossed as 'all, everything, everyone'.
TFN_NOTES:
Detailed morphological analysis of ɬu-qʼu and tʼančʼ-qʼu is unclear, but their shared element qʼu represents the emphatic temporal adverb qʼu 'already, just now' (all dialects) [Kari 2007: 163], which is frequently used as a part of various adverbs, particles and conjunctions (cf., e.g., χ-qʼu 'but' and so on).
Central Ahtena:cʰikʸ-ceʔ5
Kari 1990: 392, 477.
Lower Ahtena: cʰikʸ-ceʔ [Kari 1990: 392, 477].
Western Ahtena: cʰikʸ-ceʔ [Kari 1990: 392, 477].
Mentasta Ahtena:cʰikʸ-ceʔ5
Kari 1990: 392, 477.
AHT_NOTES:
The adverb or noun-like adjective cʰikʸ-ceʔ is glossed by Kari as 'all, entirely'. Quoted examples indicate polysemy: 'all (omnis) / all (totus)': "I spanked them all (cʰikʸ-ce)" [Kari 1990: 384], "Outside all of the people were spread on the rack (dead)", "It (lake) all flowed back in on him" [Kari 1990: 392]. Final -ce(ʔ) is the adverbial suffix 'in the manner of' [Kari 1990: 407].
Cf. the cognate verb ɬa=gender=l=cʰikʸ 'to be whole, complete' and the derived adverb ɬa=l=cʰikʸ-ceʔ-a 'completely, entirely, whole, all' [Kari 1990: 392] (only examples for 'totus' are documented: "We put all the stored fish in the ground", "Cook the whole thing!").
Distinct from the adverb ʍ=tʼ=eːn-e ~ tʼ=eːn-e 'all, everything, everyone, entire' (all dialects) [Kari 1990: 88]. Cf. the available examples: "everyone will go", "bring everything in!", "the grizzly bear steps on its entire hind foot". Originates < *(qʰo)=t=ʔeːn-e with the root =ʔeːn 'to do; to have; to see (q.v.)'.
Distinct from the loanword ʔaːl 'all, everything' (all dialects) [Kari 1990: 78]. The only example: "He took it all". Borrowed from English ɔːl 'all'.
Dogrib:hážõ̀ː6
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 50, 140. Innovative pronunciation: házõ̀ː. Glossed as 'all, everyone, everywhere'; polysemy: 'all (omnis) / all (totus)'; used both attributively and non-attributively. Morphologically unclear.
Distinct from hṍtʼìː, glossed as 'all' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 51], which seems more marginal (the only example is non-attributive: "Give them all to me").
North Slavey (Hare):ʔàrì-yúné ~ ʔàrì-yóné7
Rice 1978: 565; Rice 1989: 261. Polysemy: 'all (omnis) / all (totus)'. The second element is apparently the noun-like adjective -yúné 'old', as in cʼé-yúnéʔ 'old woman' [Rice 1978: 103].
Distinct from specific hóɣàrè ~ ʔéɣàrè 'all, entire (of time period)' [Rice 1978: 560, 565; Rice 1989: 266].
Tanacross:xú=né=l=tʼèh8
Arnold et al. 2009: 43. Polysemy: 'all (totus) / all (omnis)'; glossed as 'all (objects), entire, everything'. Cf. the human plural form xú=né=l=tʼêː-y 'all (people)' with the rare human plural suffix -y [Holton 2000: 157 f.]. Nominalized verbal form with the root =tʼèh 'to be' [Arnold et al. 2009: 53] and the areal prefix xu= [Holton 2000: 234 ff.].
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):ɬa=h=tθʰaɣŋʔ5
Milanowski 2009: 20, 66. Provided with the example: "All the people are praying". Morphologically unclear.
Lower Tanana (Minto):tǝ=tθʰǝk-cʼǝnʔ5
Kari 1994: 309; Tuttle 2009: 3. Used adverbially, glossed as 'all, entirely, whole, completely, everyone', thus with polysemy: 'all (omnis) / all (totus)'. A verbal derivative from =tθʰǝk 'to be whole' (not documented outside this expression) plus the enclitic -cʼǝnʔ 'in the manner of, -ly' [Kari 1994: 299]. Cf. the examples: "we are all looking at him", "and all of their language and all of their deeds, however, are being written down now" [Kari 1994: 309], "We all went hunting last fall", "I ate it all" [Tuttle 2009: 3].
Central Carrier:c̪ʼiya-i9
Poser 1998/2013: 508, 594; Poser 2011a: 25; Antoine et al. 1974: 237. Polysemy: 'all (omnis) / all (totus)'. This is the generic form. Cf. other forms applicable to various objects: human c̪ʼiya-n-ne, locative c̪ʼiya-tʌn, abstract c̪ʼiya-xʷ (see the numerals 'two' and also 'one' for the same inflection). Derived from the adverb c̪ʼiya 'entirely' [Poser 1998/2013: 508].
Koyukon:tǝ=ƛʰǝk-cʼǝnʔ5
Jetté & Jones 2000: 574; Jones 1978: 10. Polysemy: 'all (omnis) / all (totus)'. Derived from the adjective tǝ=ƛʰǝk-ǝʔ 'entirely, everything' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 574] (fossilized verbal form) + suffixal -cʼǝnʔ 'in a direction, in a manner' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 665].
Degexit'an:yʊ=χʊʒ ~ yǝ=χʊʒ10
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 53. Morphologically unclear. Polysemy: 'all (omnis) / all (totus)'. Cf. some examples: "family (lit.: all his relations)", "Invite all of them", "Beaver, muskrat, and foxes all have lodges", "Say it all again", "She swept the whole house" [Taff et al. 2007], "All the young men of the village tried hard to get her" [Chapman 1914: 109], "He smeared the whole parka with the rest of the found fat" [Chapman 1914: 119].
Distinct from eːtǝ ~ eːtǝ-t with polysemy 'all (totus) / every', glossed as 'completely, entirely' in [Kari 1978: 53] and as 'every' in [Taff et al. 2007] with the examples: "I'll go to see you every evening" [Taff et al. 2007], "Though I have been looking all over the world" [Chapman 1914: 140].
Distinct from χʊ=ɬ=tθʰǝg 'entire, whole' [Kari 1978: 53; Chapman 1914: 224]. Cf. the example: "All the village people have their wives, except my brother" [Chapman 1914: 107].
Sarsi:ƛʰà-á-tʼá-à11
Cook 1984: 77. Polysemy: 'all (omnis) / all (totus)'. Cf. some examples: "All his dogs he tied up. All the trees were lighted up" [Goddard 1915: 249], "all of the people", "all of the food" [Cook 1984: 77].
The root ƛʰa can represent the numeral 'one' q.v.: ƛʰì-kʼ-āzá 'one', ƛʰɒ̀-ná 'one (person)', ƛʰɒ̀-tì 'one (place)'. Final -tʼa is found in some other pronouns, e.g., tì-tʼá 'what?' q.v., xà-tʼà-á 'what (kind)' [Cook 1984: 60].
Li 1930: 126. Polysemy: 'ashes / grey (adj.)'. Derived from the verb =pai 'to be grey' [Li 1930: 81] with the adjectival prefix ti- [Li 1930: 57] and the medio-passive exponent -l- [Li 1930: 70].
Bear River dialect: ta=l=pai ~ ta=l=paiʔ, glossed with polysemy: 'ashes / grey' [Goddard 1929: 299, 313].
Kato:kʰʷoːŋʔ-tǝŋ1
Goddard 1909: 150 No. 5-6, No. 8. Cf. No. 5-6: "She piled the ashes up" (translated by Goddard as "She piled the dirt up again in the fireplace"). Substantive kʰʷoːŋʔ 'fire' q.v. + locative suffix -tǝŋ 'at' [Goddard 1912: 24].
In [Curtis 1924: 204], the word for 'ashes' is quoted as something like kʰʷoːŋʔ-čʰe, the second element is unclear.
Taldash Galice:ɬ=cʼas3
Hoijer 1973: 59; Landar 1977: 294. Polysemy: 'dirt / dust / cold ashes'. For morphology, see notes on 'sand'. In [Hoijer 1956: 223], quoted as čʼas.
Distinct from kʰʷan-sit 'fiery coals; hot ashes' [Hoijer 1973: 57], literally 'redness of fire' with kʰʷanʔ 'fire' q.v. and =sit 'to be red' q.v.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:kʼǝ=lac-a4
Kari 2007: 248, 345.
An alternative Upper Inlet term for 'ashes' is ɬas-cʼǝy [Kari 2007: 248; Kari 1977: 132], for which see notes on Outer Inlet Tanaina.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:kʼǝ=lačʼ-a4
Kari 2007: 248, 345. Originates < *kʼǝ=lač-ʔa.
There are several alternative Outer Inlet terms for 'ashes':
1) ɬaš-čʼǝɣ [Kari 2007: 248; Kari 1977: 132]; this form is a direct match with Upper Inlet ɬas-cʼǝy 'ashes'. Perhaps 'soil's air' with the same root ɬač 'soil' and čʼǝy (Upper Inlet cʼǝy, Outer Inlet čʼǝɣ) 'air' [Kari 1977: 135].
2) yusti-zuɣ-ʔa [Kari 2007: 248; Kari 1977: 132]; literally 'fireplace's sand' with yusti 'open fire, fireplace' [Kari 2007: 248] and suy (Outer Inlet suɣ) 'sand' q.v.
3) tazʔi-lačʼ-a [Kari 2007: 248]; literally 'fire's soil' with tazʔi 'fire' q.v. and the same root ɬač 'soil' (-lačʼ-a < *-lač-ʔa).
Inland Tanaina:kʼǝ=lač-a4
Kari 2007: 248, 345; Kari 1977: 132; Wassillie 1979: 5.
An alternative Inland term for 'ashes' is tazʔi-lač-a [Kari 2007: 248], for which see notes on Outer Inlet Tanaina.
Iliamna Tanaina:kʼǝ=lačʼ-a4
Kari 2007: 248, 345; Kari 1977: 132. Originates < *kʼǝ=lač-ʔa.
TFN_NOTES:
In [Kari 2007: 248], kʼǝ=lač(ʼ)-a is quoted as the common Tanaina term for 'ashes', attested in all the dialects, whereas in [Kari 1977: 132], kʼǝ=lač(ʼ)-a is specified as the Inland & Iliamna form only. Initial kʼǝ= is the indefinite possessive pronoun, -(ʔ)a is the izafet exponent [Holton et al. 2004: 15 f.; Boraas 2010: 12 ff.]. Polysemy: 'soil, earth / dirt / fine soil, loess / ashes' in all the dialects. The original meanings 'soil, earth / dirt / fine soil, loess' are attested for the non-possessed form ɬač [Kari 2007: 144].
Central Ahtena:ɬeːc ~ qʰonʔ=leːc-eʔ4
Kari 1990: 275, 480; Kari & Buck 1975: 97; Smelcer 2010: 67.
Western Ahtena: ɬeːc ~ qʰonʔ=leːc-eʔ [Kari 1990: 275, 480; Kari & Buck 1975: 97; Smelcer 2010: 67].
Mentasta Ahtena:ɬeːc ~ qʰonʔ=leːc-eʔ4
Kari 1990: 275, 480; Kari & Buck 1975: 97; Smelcer 2010: 67.
AHT_NOTES:
The noun ɬeːc is itself characterized by the polysemy: 'dirt / dust / gravel / ashes' (and probably also 'earth, soil' q.v.) [Kari 1990: 275]; the collocation qʰonʔ leːc-eʔ means 'fire's ɬeːc'. It is not clear from the available dictionaries in which dialects which form (simple ɬeːc or qʰonʔ leːc-eʔ or both) is attested as the default expression for 'ashes'.
Dogrib:ɬè-mpè4
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 69, 142. Innovative pronunciation ɬè-pè. A compound of ɬè 'flour, powder' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 69] and mpè '?'. Cf. the similar compound ɬè-tʰì 'hard ashes at the bottom of a fire, lye' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 69] (with tʰì '?').
Cf. the alternative word éhƛʼè with polysemy: 'mud / clay / dust / ashes / dirt' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 29, 142].
Distinct from ɬó-žàː 'ashes (top layer of white ashes)' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 70] with ɬó 'smoke' q.v. and žàː '?'.
Holton 2000: 340; Brean & Milanowski 1979: 16. Literally 'flour of fire' with ɬéːc 'flour' [Arnold et al. 2009: 122, 315] and kʰónʔ 'fire' q.v. It should be noted that the high tone ɬéːc should also yield high tone in the possessed form **=ɬ̬éːʒ-ʔ, whereas the rising tone in =ɬ̬ěːʒ-ʔ suggests the original low tone **ɬèːc [Holton 2000: 79].
In [Shinen 1958: 17], the Tanacross word for 'ashes' is quoted as l=cʼis, which is actually to be read l=cʼìːs 'punk (fungus), birch fungus; ashes of burnt punk' [Arnold et al. 2009: 316; Holton 2000: 340].
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):
Not documented properly. Milanowski, p.c., has suggested the compound ɬat-cʼay̥ 'ashes', but it seems doubtful for the general meaning 'ashes', cf. its Lower Tanana cognate ɬǝ-cʼǝy̥ 'ashes of bracket fungus (used to make leaf tobacco stronger)' (*'pungent smoke'?). Cf. ɬiat 'flour' [Milanowski 2009: 20, 74].
Scottie Creek: θaːy=ɬìat ~ kʰònʔ=ɬìat 'ashes' [John 1997: 33]. Literally 'flour of sand' (sic!) and 'flour of fire' correspondingly, with ɬìat 'flour' [John 1997: 40], θaːy 'sand' q.v. and kʰònʔ 'fire' q.v.
Lower Tanana (Minto):lac ~ kʰʊnʔ=lac-aʔ4
Kari 1994: 178, 363; Tuttle 2009: 8. Polysemy: 'dirt / dust / gravel / ashes' for lac. The full collocation kʰʊnʔ lac-aʔ literally means 'lac of fire'; it is glossed in the general meaning 'ashes' in [Kari 1994], but is specified as 'volcanic ashes' in [Tuttle 2009].
Distinct from kʰʊnʔ tθʰʌy-aʔ 'ashes of open fire' [Tuttle 2009: 8] ~ kʰʊnʔ θʌy-aʔ 'ashes' [Kari 1994: 93] (literally 'fire's sand'), tʼaʂ 'ashes, coals in stove or fireplace; charcoal' [Kari 1994: 253; Tuttle 2009: 8], tθʰitθ ~ kʰʊnʔ tθʰit 'hot embers, hot ashes, coals' [Kari 1994: 313, 363], ɬǝ-cʼǝy̥ 'ashes of bracket fungus (used to make leaf tobacco stronger)' [Kari 1994: 301, 363; Tuttle 2009: 22] (according to Kari, cʼǝy̥ is the variant of the verbal root =cʼik 'to be bitter, pungent'; the initial element can thus be ɬǝt 'smoke', i.e., 'pungent smoke').
Central Carrier:ɬez4
Poser 1998/2013: 255, 601; Antoine et al. 1974: 139, 296. Polysemy: 'dust / dirt / ashes'.
Distinct from čʰʌɬcʼih 'ashes that fly from a fire' [Poser 1998/2013: 102; Antoine et al. 1974: 69]; morphologically unclear.
Koyukon:ɬaːc4
Jetté & Jones 2000: 385, 848; Jones 1978: 13. Polysemy: 'dirt / soil / sand / dust / ashes / clay / mud / any granular substance'. In [Jones 1978: 13], quoted as the full collocation qʰunʔ laːc-ǝʔ 'ashes', literally 'fire's ɬaːc'.
Distinct from ɬǝ-cʼiːy̥ 'dust, soot, smoke / fine white ashes of the hard brown birch fungus / steam / jet or spout of water' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 655], perhaps 'pungent smoke' with ɬǝt 'smoke' (q.v.) + cʼiːk / cʼiːy̥ '(to be) pungent'.
Degexit'an:tθʰaːɢ=ɬaːc ~ tθʰaːqǝ=ɬaːc4
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 51; Chapman 1914: 118. Literally 'heat's mud' with tθʰaːɢ 'heat' [Taff et al. 2007].
The second candidate is the more rare form ɬaːs-ðǝɬ 'ashes' [Kari 1978: 51] (not found in other sources), where initial ɬaːs can be an assimilated variant of ɬaːc 'earth, soil / mud' q.v., the second element is =ðǝɬ 'to be hot / to be warm' q.v., thus 'ashes' as 'hot soil'.
Distinct from tʼaːʂ 'coals, charcoal, ashes' [Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 51].
Sarsi:cʰítà=kù=ƛʰìs-àʔ5
Hoijer 1956: 223. Literally 'soil/dirt of charcoal' with kù=ƛʼìs 'earth / dirt' (see notes on 'earth') and cʰítī 'charcoal' [Hoijer & Joël 1963: 70]. No expressions for 'ashes' in the rest of sources.
NUMBER:3
WORD:bark
Hupa:possr=sicʼ1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 783; Golla 1996: 29 sub 'dye'; Golla 1964: 112; Golla 1970: 219. Polysemy: 'bark / human skin / hide'. Cf. also some specific terms: kʼʸi=laː-tos-čʼeʔ 'heavy bark of conifers' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 752; Golla 1996: 9] (not entirely clear morphologically, the bound root laː is related to trees [Sapir & Golla 2001: 761]), si-kʰʸeːcʼ 'thin bark of deciduous trees; shell (of a nut)' [Golla 1996: 9].
No generic term documented for Upper Inlet Tanaina.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:kʼ=tʼičʼ-a3
Kari 2007: 61, 346; Kari 1977: 75.
Inland Tanaina:kʼ=tʼičʼ-a3
Kari 2007: 61, 346; Kari 1977: 75. No generic term in [Wassillie 1979: 7], where kʼ=tʼičʼ-a is not quoted at all.
Iliamna Tanaina:kʼ=tʼičʼ-a3
Kari 2007: 61, 346; Kari 1977: 75.
TFN_NOTES:
kʼ=tʼičʼ-a is glossed as 'bark, birchbark, spruce bark, bark peelings, pieces of bark' in [Kari 2007: 61], but only as 'bark peeling' in [Kari 1977: 75]. Initial kʼ= is the indefinite possessive pronoun, -a is the izafet exponent [Holton et al. 2004: 15 f.; Boraas 2010: 12 ff.].
Central Ahtena:possr=la=tʼuːc-eʔ3
Kari 1990: 352, 482; Kari & Buck 1975: 30; Smelcer 2010: 107.
Western Ahtena: possr=la=tʼuːc-eʔ [Kari 1990: 352, 482; Kari & Buck 1975: 30; Smelcer 2010: 107].
Mentasta Ahtena:possr=la=tʼuːc-eʔ3
Kari 1990: 352, 482; Kari & Buck 1975: 30; Smelcer 2010: 107.
AHT_NOTES:
Literally 'branch's peel' with ɬa (possessed =la) 'hand / branch' q.v. and tʼuːcʼ (with regular deglottalization in the izafet form with the suffix -eʔ) 'peel, rind' [Kari 1990: 352]. This word is quoted as the most generic term for 'bark' in [Kari & Buck 1975: 30; Smelcer 2010: 107], but specified as 'outer bark of spruce, cottonwood, willow' in [Kari 1990: 352]; however, there is no generic term for 'bark' in the latter dictionary.
Cf. the cognate verb *=ɬ=tʼuːcʼ 'to peel' (> Central & Western ...uːcʼ, Lower ...uːʔs, Mentasta ...uːc) [Kari 1990: 352].
Dogrib:wé=tʼìː3
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 114, 143. Polysemy: 'bark / peel'. Initial we= is apparently the fossilized possessive pronoun 'his, her, its'; cf., e.g., with a full-fledged possessor: kʼí wétʼìː 'birch bark' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 63] (kʼí 'birch').
North Slavey (Hare):possr=tʼúw-éʔ3
Rice 1978: 99, 118. Polysemy: 'skin / bark'.
Tanacross:čʼè=làː=cʼèy̥4
Arnold et al. 2009: 51, 275, 307; Holton 2000: 340; Brean & Milanowski 1979: 9; McRoy 1973: 5. Glossed as 'tree bark, bark of any tree' in [Arnold et al. 2009], but specifically as 'spruce bark' in [Holton 2000]. Literally 'cʼèy̥ of làː', where làː is the old root for 'hand / branch', whereas cʼèy̥ should mean 'peel, bark' vel sim.; initial čʼè= is the indefinite possessive pronoun. The root cʼèy̥ seems undocumented outside this compound (cf. cʼèy̥ 'boat, skiff' [Arnold et al. 2009: 61]); the root làː with the underlying meaning 'hand / branch' is attested, e.g., in =in=ɬ̬á-ʔ 'hand' q.v. or čʼè=làː=ʔéɫ 'branch' [Arnold et al. 2009: 65], literally 'boughs of làː' with ʔéɬ 'boughs' [Arnold et al. 2009: 250].
Distinct from the specific term čʼè=là=h=tʼûːʒ 'outer bark' [Arnold et al. 2009: 51; Holton 2000: 340], which has the same structure as čʼè=làː=cʼèy̥, but =h=tʼûːʒ is apparently the nominalized verb for 'to peel' (not attested independently; classifier =h= < *=ɬ=).
In [Shinen 1958: 12], another expression for 'bark of tree' is quoted: čʰe=ðu=cʰenʔ, which actually represents the compound čʼè=θ̬ù=čʰěnː-ʔ 'stump of branch remaining after branch is broken off' [Arnold et al. 2009: 65].
Scottie Creek: cʼì=làl=cʼay 'bark', attested in the collocation cʼok cʼìlàlcʼay 'spruce bark' [John 1997: 60] (cʼok 'spruce'). Similar to the Tanacross expression for 'bark', but less clear morphologically, since the Tanana indefinite possessive pronoun is čʼi=, not cʼì=. Distinct from specific kʼĩː 'birch / birch bark' [John 1997: 57].
Lower Tanana (Minto):possr=lʌ=tʼuc-aʔ3
Kari 1994: 259, 366. Glossed as 'outer bark of spruce, cottonwood, willow, alder'. Literally 'peel of branches' with =lʌ-ʔ 'hand; branch' and tʼuc 'rind, peeling' [Kari 1994: 259]. Cf. the cognate verb obj=t=l=tʼuc 'to peel' [Kari 1994: 259].
Poser 1998/2013: 234, 608; Antoine et al. 1974: 33, 297. Glossed as 'outer bark' by Poser and simply as 'bark' by Antoine et al. Literally 'peel of hands (i.e., of branches)' with possr=la 'hand' q.v. and possr=tʼuz 'peeling, peel of potato; inner bark of tree' [Poser 1998/2013: 477; Antoine et al. 1974: 46]. In [Poser 2011a: 34], 'bark of tree' is translated simply as possr=tʼuz.
There is also an unclear term possr=la(-)ʔ [Poser 1998/2013: 232] which means generally 'bark', occasionally attested as the first element of compounds or even as an independent word.
Distinct from two expressions for 'inner bark': possr=laʔ=til and possr=laʔ=tʰai [Poser 1998/2013: 56; Morice 1932, 1: 45], whose second elements are unclear.
Koyukon:possr=loː=tʼuːc-ǝʔ3
Jetté & Jones 2000: 557, 853; Jones 1978: 15. Specified as 'outer bark of tree', applicable to "most trees except for the birch". Literally 'tʼuːc of hands (i.e., of branches)' with possr=loː 'hand' q.v.; tʼuːc *'peel' seems unattested outside this compound.
Distinct from qʼiːy̥ 'birch / outer birchbark, roofing material' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 353].
Degexit'an:possr=loː=tʼeːʒ3
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 17; Chapman 1914: 205, 228. Attested in the passages: "He saw the bark floating in the water", "He's making a bark smokehouse". Literally 'tʼeːʒ of hands (i.e., of branches)' with possr=loː-ʔ 'hand' q.v.
Distinct from the morphologically unclear term for 'inner bark': kaːɬtʰǝm 'bark, inner willow bark, cambium' [Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 17] (perhaps k= stays for kǝ= 'its').
Distinct from qʼǝy̥ 'birch / birch bark' [Kari 1978: 18].
Sapir & Golla 2001: 772; Golla 1996: 10; Golla 1964: 110. Polysemy: 'belly / stomach'. The same root with the full grade of the izafet suffix: possr=mit-eʔ 'the belly part (in cutting fish), deer tripe' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 770; Golla 1996: 10; Golla 1964: 110]; thus =mitʼ should originate from *=mit-ʔ.
Distinct from the more rare term possr=čont-eʔ 'belly' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 812; Golla 1964: 114], whose exact meaning and application are unknown.
Mattole:possr=pˈiʔɬ1
Li 1930: 126. Originates from *=pitʼ [Li 1930: 6, 20] (further < *=pit-ʔ ?). Glossed by Li as 'stomach', thus apparently with polysemy: 'belly / stomach'.
Bear River dialect: possr=pːat ~ possr=pːaɬ with polysemy: 'belly / stomach' [Goddard 1929: 297, 313, 321].
Kato:possr=pǝtʼ1
Goddard 1912: 22; Goddard 1909: 143 No. 13, 152 No. 2, 158 No. 3. Polysemy: 'belly / stomach'. The non-possessed form is also attested: pǝtʼ with the specific meaning 'stomach as food' [Goddard 1912: 20; Goddard 1909: 109 No. 5, 110 No. 1, 113 No. 3] - apparently plain pǝtʼ is the result of reanalysis of the original expression possr=pǝtʼ.
There is also a term čʼan ~ čʼaŋ that is glossed once as 'belly' [Goddard 1909: 79 No. 13], but actually, it seems to simply be the frequent word čʼaŋ 'food' [Goddard 1912: 20].
Kari 1977: 103. No Outer Inlet term for 'belly' in [Kari 2007].
Inland Tanaina:possr=vǝtʼ1
Kari 2007: 96, 346; Kari 1977: 103. No term for 'belly' in [Wassillie 1979].
Iliamna Tanaina:possr=vǝtʼ1
Kari 2007: 96, 346; Kari 1977: 103.
TFN_NOTES:
Upper Inlet, Inland, Iliamna =petʼ / =vetʼ is glossed with polysemy: 'belly / diaphragm, partition between lungs and stomach' in [Kari 2007: 96].
Distinct from the term for 'stomach': possr=cʰuƛʼ-a (Upper Inlet) / possr=čʰuƛʼ-a (Outer Inlet, Inland) / possr=čʰuƛʼ-n-a (Iliamna, sic?) [Kari 2007: 96; Kari 1977: 103].
Distinct from the term possr=kʰun 'inner abdomen' (all dialects) [Kari 2007: 96; Kari 1977: 104]. As elements of compounds, two variants are attested: (1) verbal incorporated kʰa- [Tenenbaum 1978: 166] (glossed as 'belly [refers to lying prone, or on all fours, or an upside-down container]' by Tenenbaum); (2) kʰu- in kʰu-qʰiltu-yi 'pregnant animal (= it has one in its abdomen)' [Kari 2007: 15], possr=kʰu-qǝš (Inland possr=kʰu-qǝx) 'his stomach lining, stomach muscles (= abdomen white)' [Kari 2007: 96], possr=kʰu=z=ʔi-n 'heart' q.v., etc.
Distinct from the specific term possr=pis (Upper Inlet, Outer Inlet) / possr=vis (Inland, Iliamna), glossed as 'inner stomach, main food bag (mainly for animals)' [Kari 2007: 96]. According to [Kari 1977: 103], however, possr=pis became the generic term for 'belly' in Outer Inlet.
Central Ahtena:possr=petʼ ~ possr=peʔt1
Kari 1990: 105, 485; Kari & Buck 1975: 67; Smelcer 2010: 49. The form =peʔt is from [Kari & Buck 1975; Smelcer 2010].
Western Ahtena: possr=petʼ [Kari 1990: 105, 485; Kari & Buck 1975: 67; Smelcer 2010: 49].
Mentasta Ahtena:possr=pet1
Kari 1990: 105, 485; Kari & Buck 1975: 67; Smelcer 2010: 49.
AHT_NOTES:
Proto-Ahtena *=petʼ; used without the izafet suffix -eʔ.
Distinct from the term for 'abdomen': Central & Western possr=cʰaːƛ-eʔ, Lower possr=cʰaːt-eʔ, Mentasta possr=cʰaːƛʼ (< *=cʰaːƛʼ-eʔ) [Kari 1990: 370, 475; Kari & Buck 1975: 67; Smelcer 2010: 49].
Dogrib:possr=mpò1
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 33, 39, 215; Saxon & Siemens n.d. Innovative pronunciation: possr=pò. Polysemy: 'belly / stomach'; glossed as 'stomach, belly, tummy, abdomen, mid-section of body'; applied to humans and animals.
There is also a collocation possr=žĩ̀ː tʰání, quoted in [Saxon & Siemens n.d.] as 'stomach, belly, tummy, abdomen, mid-section of body' (i.e., a full synonym of possr=mpò); literally 'middle of the body' with =žĩ̀ː ~ =žìː 'body, insides' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 47] and tʰání 'half, middle' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 93].
Distinct from possr=kʰoːn̥ 'abdomen, viscera / womb / inside the sled basket' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 298].
Degexit'an:possr=vǝt1
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 36; Chapman 1914: 219. Polysemy: 'belly / stomach'.
Sarsi:possr=mìʔ1
Hoijer & Joël 1963: 69; Hoijer 1956: 222.
NUMBER:5
WORD:big
Hupa:=kʰʸah1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 757; Golla 1996: 11; Golla 1970: 137. Verbal root 'to be big'. The light stem =kʰʸah < *=kʰʸaːh; the heavy stem =kʰʸaːw < *=kʰʸaːh-i. The same morpheme constitutes the augmentative suffix -kʰʸoh ~ -kʰoh [Sapir & Golla 2001: 759; Golla 1996: 11; Golla 1970: 262].
Mattole:=ɕʰaːɣ1
Li 1930: 45, 57, 118. Verbal root 'to be big'. This is the heavy stem, originating < *=ɕʰaːx-i [Li 1930: 23]; the light stem is =ɕʰah < *=ɕʰaːx. The same morpheme constitutes the augmentative suffix -ɕʰoh / -ɕʰow- [Li 1930: 138].
Bear River dialect: not attested.
Kato:=čʰaɣ1
Goddard 1912: 28, 74. Verbal root 'to be big'; applied to 'fish', 'teeth', 'country' etc. This is the heavy stem, originating < *=čʰax-i; the light stem is =čʰah < *=čʰax. The same morpheme constitutes the augmentative suffix -čʰoː [Goddard 1912: 26].
Taldash Galice:=čʰah1
Hoijer 1973: 71; Landar 1977: 294. Verbal root: 'to be big'. The same morpheme also forms the augmentative suffix -čʰoh (e.g., ɬĩʔ-čʰoh 'horse', lit. 'big pet' [Hoijer 1973: 61]).
Upper Inlet Tanaina:
Not attested.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:=ɬ=kʰuʁ1
Boraas 2010: 67, 82-83.
Two expressions for 'big' are documented in [Boraas 2010].
1) The verb =ɬ=kʰuʁ, glossed as 'to be big, large, tall, high, great in quantity or volume'. Paradigm: =kʰuʁ (< *=kʰuχ-ǝ) [neuter imperf. & perf.] / =kʰǝχ (< *=kʰǝχ) [progressive imperf. & perf.]; the variant =kʰǝʁ (< *=kʰǝχ-ǝ) [neuter perf.] is attested as well.
2) The noun-like adjective kʰaʔa with examples: "big mountain", "big moose", "big village", "big old man (euphemistic name for brown bear)" [Boraas 2010: 39]. In [Boraas 2010: 67], kʰaʔa is also quoted as the root for the transitional future form in the suppletive paradigm of the verb =kʰuʁ 'to be big'.
We are forced to treat =kʰuʁ and kʰaʔa as synonyms.
Inland Tanaina:=ɬ=kʰuʁ1
Tenenbaum 1978: 49 et passim; Tenenbaum 1976 1: 59 et passim; Wassillie 1979: 11.
Three expressions for 'big' have been found in the available sources.
Also: "how big is a pile?" [Tenenbaum 1976 2: 33]; "a really big house" [Tenenbaum 1976 2: 9]; "a really big one" [Tenenbaum 1976 2: 24]; "a really big boat" [Tenenbaum 1976 2: 65]; "a really big caribou bull" [Tenenbaum 1976 3: 55]; "the baby got big" [Tenenbaum 1976 3: 68]; "The bear cubs were as big as..." [Tenenbaum 1976 4: 22]; "His son was as big as..." [Tenenbaum 1976 4: 32]; "this big one" [Tenenbaum 1976 1: 8]; "it was big" [Tenenbaum 1976 1: 10; 4: 38]; "It got big" [Tenenbaum 1978: 49, 50, 89]; "you're really big" [Tenenbaum 1976 1: 66]; "he's big" [Tenenbaum 1976 1: 69; Tenenbaum 1978: 110]; "he was so big" [Tenenbaum 1976 1: 79].
The verb =kʰǝχ / =kʰuχ "to be expensive" [Tenenbaum 1978: 50] etymologically represents the same root.
2) The noun-like adjective čʰǝχ [Wassillie 1979: 11]. Examples: "A big plane landed" [Wassillie 1979: 11]; "big water hole" [Tenenbaum 1976 1: 3]; "big giant" [Tenenbaum 1976 1: 75]; "big fire" [Tenenbaum 1976 1: 78]; "big boat" [Tenenbaum 1976 2: 23, 63]; "big sandbar" [Tenenbaum 1976 3: 42]; "the big one" [Tenenbaum 1976 1: 75].
3) The noun-like adjective kʰaʔa (~ contracted kʰa). Attested in a couple of examples: "big spruce tree" [Tenenbaum 1976 2: 59]; "big ground squirrel" [Tenenbaum 1976 3: 1, 8, 9], "a large dog" [Holton et al. 2004: 11].
The difference between the tree expressions is unclear. We treat =kʰuʁ and čʰǝχ as synonyms, but exclude kʰaʔa, since it seems statistically marginal.
Iliamna Tanaina:
Not attested.
TFN_NOTES:
Expressions for 'big, large' are poorly documented, because they are missing from the main Tanaina dictionaries: [Kari 1977; Kari 2007]. External comparison suggests that the verb =kʰuʁ should be considered the basic Proto-Tanaina term for 'big'. The adjective kʰaʔa would have a more specific meaning (exact semantic reconstruction is impossible). The adjective čʰǝχ is not entirely clear etymologically; it could continue the same proto-root as =kʰuʁ, having been borrowed from a lect where čʰ- is the regular reflex.
Central Ahtena:=kʰʸaːχ1
Kari 1990: 109; 485.
Lower Ahtena: =kʰʸaːχ [Kari 1990: 109; 485].
Western Ahtena: =kʰʸaːχ [Kari 1990: 109; 485].
Mentasta Ahtena:=kʰʸaːχ1
Kari 1990: 109; 485.
AHT_NOTES:
Three generic expressions for 'big, large' are quoted in [Kari 1990: 485] (no dialectal difference in meaning or application is mentioned by Kari).
1) The verb =kʰʸaːχ 'to be big, large, tall, high, great in quantity or volume' [Kari 1990: 109; 485]; this is a basic generic verb for the meaning 'to be big'.
2) The noun-like adjective kʰʸeʔe [Kari 1990: 112; 485]. This form is glossed as 'big, large' and specified as "very common". The following examples are quoted in [Kari 1990: 112]: "big berries", "king salmon" (lit. "big salmon"), "big bank (a toponym)". The fixed adverbial collocation "the whole day", lit. "a big day" suggests the formal polysemy 'big / whole'.
3) The noun-like adjective kʰʸoʁ ~ kʰʸoχ 'big, large' [Kari 1990: 109], specified by Kari as "less frequently used than kʰʸeʔe". Actually, the nominalized form kʰʸoʁ is one of the ablaut stems of the verb =kʰʸaːχ 'to be big'.
We are compelled to treat =kʰʸaːχ and kʰʸeʔe as synonyms for all the dialects, although it is formally unclear whether =kʰʸaːχ can be used attributively, i.e., as a verb-like adjective (typically for Athapaskan) or not. Cf. the similar situation with 'small' q.v.
Dogrib:=čʰà1
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 80, 145. Innovative pronunciation: =cʰà. Verbal root: 'to be big'. The same morpheme constitutes the augmentative suffix -čʰó [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 8; Marinakis et al. 2007: 152]. The basic expressions for 'small' q.v. are based on this verb: =čʰà-lé-(á), literally 'not to be big'.
Distinct from the suffix -ntèː ~ -tèː 'great, important, big, original' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 86].
North Slavey (Hare):=šà1
Rice 1978: 261, 457, 489; Rice 1989: 239. Verb with polysemy: 'to be big / to be old'. E.g.: "the knife is bigger than it" [Rice 1989: 1008], "he has a big boat and a small boat" [Rice 1989: 1070], "Bill hooked the biggest fish" [Rice 1989: 1086], "I got tall" [Rice 1989: 1302]. The same morpheme is also part of the augmentative suffix -šò [Rice 1978: 93; Rice 1989: 238; Hoijer 1956: 222].
Another, apparently more rarely used, candidate is the deverbal adjective tè=wéʔ 'big' as in "big beaver", "Sunday (lit. big day)" [Rice 1978: 49], "big ice" [Rice 1978: 79].
Tanacross:čʰòx1
Arnold et al. 2009: 57. Noun-like adjective. Cf. the cognate verbal form n=čʰáːx '(to be) big' [Arnold et al. 2009: 58; Holton 2000: 350; Shinen 1958: 19], modified with the adjectival/gender exponent n= [Holton 2000: 237 ff.].
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):čʰoh1
Milanowski 2009: 13, 68. Noun-like adjective, glossed as 'big / large / mature in size'. The examples are: "He put out a big fire" [Milanowski 2009: 103]; "big mountain" [Milanowski 2009: 16]. Cf. the cognate verbal forms n=čʰaːʔ '(it is) big', hõː=čʰaːʔ '(it is) big' [Milanowski 2009: 5, 17, 21, 120].
Distinct from hõː=ƛʼat '(it is) great (in quantity or degree)' [Milanowski 2009: 17].
Northway: čʰoh 'big, large, mature in size' [Milanowski 2007: 3].
Scottie Creek: čʰoh 'big', found in the examples: "The swan is a big, white bird" [John 1997: 10], "big toe" [John 1997: 17], "I am walking around by the big river" [John 1997: 48], "I see one big star" [John 1997: 52]. The cognate verb: n=čʼâː '(it is) big', found in the examples: "Its nipple is big" [John 1997: 15], "The pack is big" [John 1997: 37].
Lower Tanana (Minto):čʰʊx1
Kari 1994: 50, 369; Tuttle 2009: 21. Cf. Kari's and Tuttle's examples: "big dog", "big house", "large sled", "large male caribou", "large whitefish". Also functions as the verb =čʰʊx [neuter imperf.] / =čʰʌx [transitional imperf./perf.] 'to be big, large, tall, high, great in quantity or volume' [Kari 1994: 50; Tuttle 2009: 21].
Distinct from čʰaʔa with polysemy: 'big, large / dear' [Kari 1994: 42, 369], but this adjective is apparently more marginal in the meaning 'big' than čʰʊx, because čʰaʔa is only provided with the example for 'dear' in [Kari 1994: 42] and not quoted in [Tuttle 2009] at all.
Central Carrier:čʰo1
Poser 1998/2013: 102, 613. A noun-like adjective or an augmentative suffix. The cognate verb =čʰa 'to be big' is also widely used [Poser 1998/2013: 614, 1218, 1249; Poser 2011a: 40; Antoine et al. 1974: 298].
Koyukon:=kʰoːχ1
Jetté & Jones 2000: 297, 858; Jones 1978: 20. Verb 'to be big', widely applicable. Also functions as the noun-like adjective kʰuχ 'big' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 298].
Distinct from the adjective kǝt-ǝʔ 'great, large, very big, enormous' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 188].
Degexit'an:čʰʊχ1
Taff et al. 2007; Chapman 1914: 221. A noun-like adjective. The cognate verb =čʰoːχ 'to be big' may be used as well [Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1976: 27].
Sarsi:=čʰɒ̀ːw ~ =čʰɒ́w1
Li 1930: 25; Cook 1984: 67; Hoijer 1956: 222; Nanagusja 1996a: 129. Verbal stem: 'to be big'. Also functions as the noun-like adjective čʰúw 'big' [Cook 1984: 67].
Bear River dialect: takʰitːi 'bird' [Goddard 1929: 299, 314], an unclear form.
Kato:tʼa-kʰʷiliːŋ2
Goddard 1912: 29. Literally 'it does/has feathers (tʼa)'. In Goddard's data only the collective meaning 'birds' is attested, although the expression tʼakliŋ-weš-i 'bird egg' [Essene 1942: 86] (with possr=weš-iː 'egg') should indicate that tʼa-kʰʷiliːŋ denotes sg. 'bird' as well.
Taldash Galice:
Not attested.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:qaqa-sla3
Kari 2007: 27, 346; Kari 1977: 42.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:qaqa-šla3
Kari 2007: 27, 346; Kari 1977: 27, 346.
Inland Tanaina:čʼ=qaqa-šla3
Kari 2007: 27, 346; Kari 1977: 27, 346; Wassillie 1979: 11. The prefixal element čʼ= is unclear.
Iliamna Tanaina:qaqa-šla quya3
Kari 2007: 27, 346; Kari 1977: 27, 346.
TFN_NOTES:
Literally 'small beast' with the substantive qaqa, retained as the generic term 'mammal, four-legged animal' in Inland Tanaina [Kari 2007: 1; Kari 1977: 23] and also attested with the specific meaning 'grizzly bear' in all the dialects [Kari 2007: 1; Kari 1977: 26]. Both -šla and additional Iliamna quya mean 'small' q.v.
Central Ahtena:qaːqi3
Kari 1990: 190, 486; Kari & Buck 1975: 15; Smelcer 2010: 36.
Western Ahtena: qaːqi [Kari 1990: 190, 486; Kari & Buck 1975: 15; Smelcer 2010: 36].
Mentasta Ahtena:cʼe=qaːqa3
Kari 1990: 190, 486; Kari & Buck 1975: 15; Smelcer 2010: 36. Note the regular harmony -i > -a; the prefixal element cʼe= is unclear; it corresponds to čʼ= in Inland Tanaina čʼ=qaqa-šla 'bird' q.v.
AHT_NOTES:
The form qaːqi (cʼe=qaːqa) is quoted without any polysemy in the Ahtena dictionaries.
Dogrib:čʰĩ́-ã́4
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 8, 145. Innovative pronunciation: cʰĩ́ã́. Final -ã́ is the diminutive suffix [Marinakis et al. 2007: 152 ff.].
North Slavey (Hare):ʔṍ=kʼài5
Rice 1978: 35, 121. Glossed with the generic meaning 'bird', e.g., "he hit the bird with a stone" [Rice 1989: 302], "a bird's nest is located" [Rice 1989: 1026]. Initial ʔṍ= is a rare desemanticized prefix [Rice 1989: 166].
Distinct from šõ̀ʔõ̀-yà 'small bird' [Rice 1978: 94; Rice 1989: 44], final -ya is a diminutive suffix [Rice 1989: 240]; tè=tʼòn-ì 'large bird' [Rice 1978: 48; Rice 1989: 166], a deverbative with the i-nominalizer.
Tanacross:cʰú-kàːy6
Arnold et al. 2009: 58; Holton 2000: 341; Brean & Milanowski 1979: 5; McRoy 1973: 2; Shinen 1958: 10. Literally 'small cʰú' with kàːy 'small' q.v.; the root cʰú seems undocumented outside this expression.
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):cʼe=h=tʼuːdn7
Milanowski 2009: 27, 68. Cf. the example: "She is scattering bird seed" [Milanowski 2009: 48]. Could be a nominalized verbal form, although the meaning of the underlying verb =tʼuːt is unclear (final ...dn < *...t-ǝ with the relativizing suffix).
Scottie Creek: cʼa=h=tʼùt 'bird' [John 1997: 7]. Cf. the available example: "What bird is this?".
Lower Tanana (Minto):cʰuya5
Kari 1994: 293, 370; Tuttle 2009: 22. Glossed as 'birds (any), land birds'. Perhaps cʰuy-a with the diminutive suffix -ã ~ -a.
Central Carrier:tʌtʼai8
Poser 1998/2013: 148, 614; Poser 2011a: 40; Antoine et al. 1974: 92, 298. Polysemy: 'bird / duck'. Morphologically unclear.
Koyukon:saːn̥=qaːqǝ-ʔ3
Jetté & Jones 2000: 198; Jones 1978: 21. Apparently no generic term for 'bird' in the majority of Koyukon varieties. The only common expressions are Central saːn̥ qaːqǝ-ʔ, literally 'summer animal', Lower qaːq-oːz, literally 'small animal' with qaːqǝ 'animal'. These are glossed as 'small passerine birds which migrate south in the winter' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 198] or 'bird (of the tweety-bird variety)' [Jones & Kwaraceius 1997: 77]. As explained by Jetté, these terms apply "to all the small birds which live in the country only during summer and spend the winter elsewhere. The larger birds, such as ducks, geese, cranes, swans, etc., although etymologically comprised under the designation, are by custom excluded from it". In [Jones 1978: 21], however, saːn̥ qaːqǝ-ʔ and qaːq-oːz are quoted as generic terms for 'bird' in the Central and Lower dialects.
There exists a generic term cʰuːyǝ 'bird' in the Toklat-Bearpaw subdialect of the Upper dialect [Jetté & Jones 2000: 647], which looks like a borrowing from Lower Tananacʰuy-a 'bird'.
Degexit'an:qaːɢ-kʼǝʒ3
Taff et al. 2007. Literally 'little animal' (cf. qaːɢ 'animal').
Sarsi:ì=cʼɒ́ɣ-ɒ́ ~ i=cʼaɣ-a9
Hoijer & Joël 1963: 72; Nanagusja 1996b: 156. Initial i= is a prefix which occurs in many Sarsi nouns. Most likely, it is the fossilized indefinite non-personal possessive pronoun i- [Hoijer & Joël 1963: 66]. Final -ɒ is the diminutive suffix -a ~ -aa [Li 1930b: 9].
NUMBER:7
WORD:bite
Hupa:=xacʼ1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 797; Golla 1996: 11; Golla 1970: 84. In [Golla 1996], also the reduced root variant =xucʼ is quoted. Applicable to humans, animals and insects. Distinct from =qos [light imperf.] / =qocʼ [heavy perf.] 'to bite crunch (smth brittle); to bite off' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 756; Golla 1996: 11].
Mattole:=kič2
Li 1930: 100. This is the heavy stem, originating < *=kič-i [Li 1930: 24 f.]; the light stem is =kiš < *=kič.
Bear River dialect: not attested.
Kato:=kǝc1
Goddard 1912: 78. Note the de-ejectivization -c < *-cʼ.
Taldash Galice:=teh3
Hoijer 1973: 64; Hoijer 1956: 223. Imperf. & perf. stem. Exact meaning and application are, however, unknown. In [Hoijer 1956], transcribed as =tei.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:=ʁǝs2
Lovick 2005: 50 ex. 2.13a.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:
Not attested.
Inland Tanaina:=ʁaš2
Wassillie 1979: 11; Tenenbaum 1978: 70. Applied to both humans and animals. Paradigm: =ʁaš [imperf.] / =ʁač [perf.] (for the consonant alternation cf. [Kari 2007: xxiv]).
Iliamna Tanaina:
Not attested.
TFN_NOTES:
Expressions for 'to bite' are poorly documented, because this entry is missing from the main Tanaina dictionary [Kari 2007].
Central Ahtena:=ʔaːɬ4
Kari 1990: 79, 486.
Lower Ahtena: =ʔaːɬ [Kari 1990: 79, 486].
Western Ahtena: =ʔaːɬ [Kari 1990: 79, 486].
Mentasta Ahtena:=ʔaːɬ4
Kari 1990: 79, 486.
AHT_NOTES:
Regular paradigm: =ʔaːɬ [imperf.] / *=ʔaːƛʼ [perf.] (Central & Western =ʔaːƛʼ; Lower =ʔaːʔɬ; Mentasta =ʔaːƛ). Polysemy: 'to bite / to chew / to trap, seize, catch'. In the direct meaning 'to bite, chew' the word is applied to both humans and animals.
Dogrib:=té3
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 56, 146. Glossed as 'to bite, take a bite out of'. In the available example, applied to a dog.
North Slavey (Hare):=kʼà4
Rice 1978: 271, 442, 489. There are two verbs with the meaning 'to bite' in Hare: =kʼà glossed as 'to bite, chew up' [Rice 1978: 442, 489] and =h=shù glossed as 'to bite, hold in mouth, grab in mouth' [Rice 1978: 270, 458, 489; Hoijer 1956: 222] (Hoijer quotes the 19th c. archaic variant =čʰu).
The verb =kʼà seems to be more generic and frequent. Cf. attested examples with =kʼà 'to bite': "s/he bit me" [Rice 1989: 67], "I'll bite them" [Rice 1978: 271], "John shot the dog that bit the child" [Rice 1989: 1196], "if a wolf is hungry, it sometimes bites people" [Rice 1989: 342], "Keep away because he might bite you" [Rice 1978: 207], "we bite ourselves" [Rice 1989: 490], "A mosquito bit me" [Rice 1978: 271].
Examples for =h=shù 'to bite' are more scant, and all of them refer to dogs or wolves: "the dog bit the boy" [Rice 1989: 987], "the dog might bite you" [Rice 1978: 270], "a hungry wolf will sometimes bite people" [Rice 1989: 1326]. Apparently the meaning 'to grab in mouth' is basic for =h=shù.
Tanacross:=ʔéɬ5
Arnold et al. 2009: 58; Shinen 1958: 31. Paradigm is unknown. Applicable to humans and animals.
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):=ʔaɬ5
Milanowski 2009: 38. Paradigm is unknown.
Lower Tanana (Minto):=ʔʌɬ5
Kari 1994: 27, 370. Paradigm: =ʔʌɬ [imperf.] / =ʔʌƛ [perf.]. Polysemy: 'to eat / to bite' (q.v.). Cf. some of Kari's examples for the meaning 'to bite': "I bit it", "Are you gonna bite it?", "It'll bite you", "A dog bit me", "he bit it in two".
Distinct from =l=kʊc 'to bite' [Kari 1994: 119, 370]. Since =l=kʊc is only provided by Kari with a single example ("He bit it"), this verb is apparently more marginal than =ʔʌɬ.
Central Carrier:=ɬ=čʼuɬ6
Poser 1998/2013: 1219, 1250; Antoine et al. 1974: 204; Morice 1932, 1: 351. In [Poser 1998/2013: 1219, 1250], glossed as 'to act violently on a soft material, e.g. to tear or split it'. Paradigm: =ɬ=čʼuɬ [momentaneous imperf.] / =ɬ=čʼʌl [momentaneous perf.]. Cf. the examples: "he is biting me", "The puppy is biting my leg" [Antoine et al. 1974: 204], "it is biting him (playfully)" [Antoine et al. 1974: 268], "The dog bit him in the leg" [Antoine et al. 1974: 123], "When he was coming (walking) with us, a dog bit him" [Antoine et al. 1974: 168], "to bite (that is, to tear with teeth)", "to bite (in a piece of bread)" [Morice 1932, 1: 351].
Distinct from =ɬ=ɣas̪ 'to gnaw' [Poser 1998/2013: 1220, 1254; Antoine et al. 1974: 311].
Koyukon:=l=kuc ~ =ɬ=kuc7
Jetté & Jones 2000: 196, 859; Jones 1978: 22. Applicable to both humans and animals (such as dogs).
In the Toklat-Bearpaw subdialect of the Upper dialect, a different verb =l=cʰǝt 'to bite' is used [Jetté & Jones 2000: 635] (although it is unclear whether it coexists with =l=kuc or not).
Degexit'an:=tǝʂ8
Taff et al. 2007; Hargus 2010: 42. Paradigm: =tǝʂ [imperf.] / =tǝc [perf.]. Cf. the examples: "He bit it", "I bit it", "The dog bit him".
The second candidate is the verb =ʁʊʂ ~ =ʁǝʂ ~ =ʁoːʂ 'to bite', adduced in [Hargus 2000: 6; Kari 1976: 26] with the example "dog bit him". The difference between =tǝʂ and =ʁʊʂ is unclear; we have to treat them as synonyms.
Distinct from =ɬ=qeːθ 'to gnaw' [Taff et al. 2007], =ʔoːɬ [imperf.] / =ʔoːƛ [imperf.] 'to chew' [Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1976: 5].
Sarsi:=ʔɒ̀ɬ5
Li 1930b: 16.
A difficult case with three competing verbs:
1) =kás [imperf.] / =kàːz [perf.], glosseed as 'to bite' in [Li 1930b: 20; Cook 1984: 253], without further information.
2) =s=xɒ̀s [imperf.] / =s=xɒ̀ːz ~ =s=xɒ̀c- [perf.], glossed as 'to gnaw' in [Li 1930b: 17; Cook 1984: 233], but quoted in [Hoijer 1956: 222] for the Swadesh meaning 'to bite'.
3) =ʔɒ̀ɬ [imperf.] / =ʔɒ̀ːl [perf.], glossed as 'to chew' in [Li 1930b: 16; Cook 1984: 71, 232].
Browsing through the text collection in [Goddard 1915] suggests, however, that =ʔɒ̀ɬ could be the basic expression for both 'to bite' and 'to chew'. Cf. the found examples: "He [the hero acting like a bear] threw them down, then he pretended to bite them. There was no blood" [Goddard 1915: 255], "He [the hero] bit its [bear's] face" [Goddard 1915: 265], "A part of his body swells, then he chews [medicine] herb" [Goddard 1915: 219], "He put a grass in his mouth. He chewed it" [Goddard 1915: 241].
Provisionally we fill the slot with the verb =ʔɒ̀ɬ, assuming synchronic polysemy: 'to bite / to chew'.
NUMBER:7
WORD:bite
Hupa:
Mattole:
Kato:
Taldash Galice:
Upper Inlet Tanaina:
Outer Inlet Tanaina:
Inland Tanaina:
Iliamna Tanaina:
Central Ahtena:
Mentasta Ahtena:
Dogrib:
North Slavey (Hare):
Tanacross:
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):
Lower Tanana (Minto):
Central Carrier:
Koyukon:
Degexit'an:=tǝc7
Perfective.
Sarsi:
NUMBER:7
WORD:bite
Hupa:
Mattole:
Kato:
Taldash Galice:
Upper Inlet Tanaina:
Outer Inlet Tanaina:
Inland Tanaina:=ʁač2
Perfective.
Iliamna Tanaina:
Central Ahtena:=ʔaːƛʼ4
Perfective.
Mentasta Ahtena:=ʔaːƛ4
Perfective.
Dogrib:
North Slavey (Hare):
Tanacross:
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):
Lower Tanana (Minto):=ʔʌƛ4
Perfective.
Central Carrier:
Koyukon:
Degexit'an:=ʁʊʂ2
Hargus 2000: 6; Kari 1976: 26.
Sarsi:
NUMBER:8
WORD:black
Hupa:=ʍin1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 796; Golla 1996: 11. Verbal root: 'to be black'. Imperfective, originating < *=ʍin-i; the perfective root variant is =ʍeʔn < =ʍin-ʔ-i.
Mattole:=xin1
Li 1930: 80. Verbal root with polysemy: 'to be dark / to be black'. Li quotes the verb 'to be dark' as =xiŋ < *=xin [imperf.] / =xiːʔn < *=xin-ʔ-i [perf.] (l-classifier) and posits the separate verb =xin (< *=xin-i) (zero-classifier) 'to be black'. Cf. the full form ɬi=xˈin '(it is) black' (for the adjectival prefix ɬi- see [Li 1930: 64]).
Bear River dialect: ɬu=xʷin-e ~ ɬa=xʷan 'black' [Goddard 1929: 314].
Kato:=šiːnʔ1
Goddard 1912: 28, 67; Curtis 1924: 203. Verbal root 'to be black'. Paradigm: =šǝŋʔ < *=šin-ʔ [light] / =šiːnʔ < *=šin-ʔ-i [heavy]. Glottalization of the final nasal has spread from the old perfective stems (*=šin-ʔ, *=šin-ʔ-i) across the paradigm. The adjective-like form is ɬ=šǝŋʔ '(it is) black'.
Taldash Galice:=šan1
Hoijer 1973: 71; Landar 1977: 294. Verbal root: 'to be black'. The adjectival form is ɬa=šan.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:=l=tʼicʼ2
Kari 2007: 319, 346; Kari 1977: 253.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:=l=tʼǝš2
Kari 2007: 319, 346; Kari 1977: 253.
Inland Tanaina:=ƛʼǝčʼ3
Kari 2007: 319, 346; Kari 1977: 253; Wassillie 1979: 11.
Iliamna Tanaina:=ƛʼǝčʼ3
Kari 2007: 319, 346; Kari 1977: 253.
TFN_NOTES:
Seldovia dialect: =l=tʼǝљ. Verbal root: 'to be black'. The Outer Inlet form in -љ should be the imperfective, whereas the Inland form in -иʼ (Upper Inlet regular -cʼ) looks like the perfective variant; on the final consonant alternations see [Kari 2007: xxiv]. The dialectal variant =ƛʼǝčʼ is of another origin.
Central Ahtena:=l=tʼuːcʼ2
Kari 1990: 351, 486; Kari & Buck 1975: 103; Smelcer 2010: 60.
Western Ahtena: =l=tʼuːcʼ [Kari 1990: 351, 486; Kari & Buck 1975: 103; Smelcer 2010: 60].
Mentasta Ahtena:=l=tʼuːc2
Kari 1990: 351, 486; Kari & Buck 1975: 103; Smelcer 2010: 60.
AHT_NOTES:
Proto-Ahtena *=l=tʼuːcʼ.
There is also a second verb =ɬ=tʼeːs 'to be black', specified as "obsolete, only in a few nominalizations" in [Kari 1990: 347, 486] (all the dialects?), derived from tʼeːs 'charcoal'.
Dogrib:=zṍ1
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 18, 146. Verbal root with polysemy: 'to be black / to be dark'. It is also listed as the basic color term 'black' on the front flyleaf of [Saxon & Siemens 1996].
Distinct from the noun tʼèː, glossed as 'charcoal, black' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 100].
North Slavey (Hare):=l=zèn-è1
Rice 1978: 223, 484, 489; Rice 1989: 577, 910. Verbal stem 'to be black'; for the desemanticized verbal suffix -e see[Rice 1989: 816].
Distinct from =t=ƛʼè 'to become black' [Rice 1978: 222, 488], with not very diagnostic examples: "His face got black", "The sky is getting dark".
Tanacross:tà=t=s̬ẽy̥1
Arnold et al. 2009: 59; Holton 2000: 348; Brean & Milanowski 1979: 22; McRoy 1973: 16; Shinen 1958: 18. The verb =t=s̬ẽy 'to be black' with the adjectival/gender exponent t(a)= [Holton 2000: 237 ff.]. The root s̬ẽy 'black' also functions as the second element of nominal compounds [Holton 2000: 132].
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):ta=t=sãy1
Milanowski 2009: 15, 69, 72. The verb =t=sãy 'to be black' with the adjectival/gender exponent t(a)=.
1) the adjective ƛʼǝc-aʔ with polysemy: 'black / blue' [Kari 1994: 267, 370] and the verb =t=ƛʼǝc 'to be black' [Kari 1994: 267, 370; Tuttle 2009: 23]; its dimensional aspect (i.e., 'comparative, -er, more than') form =l=ƛʼǝʂ is translated as 'to be dark blue' in [Kari 1994: 267]. Cf. the example "My hair is black" [Tuttle 2009: 23].
2) the adjective ʐǝn-aʔ ~ ʐǝn-a 'black', the verb =t=ʐǝn̥ 'to be black' [Kari 1994: 352, 370]. Cf. the examples: "scoter (i.e., black duck)", "black moose", "it is black", "when birch are black, they are no good", "berries became ripe (i.e., dark, black)", "in August, after they get dark, they put them away" [Kari 1994: 352].
Since in the short glossaries [Krauss 1974: 37; Tuttle 2009: 23] only =ƛʼǝc is quoted for the meaning '(to be) black', whereas =ʐǝn is not mentioned at all, we treat =ƛʼǝc as the basic term for 'black' in synchronic Lower Tanana.
Central Carrier:=ɬ=kʌs4
Poser 1998/2013: 614, 1220, 1253; Poser 2011a: 41; Antoine et al. 1974: 89, 298. Verbal stem: 'to be black'.
Koyukon:=ƛʼǝc3
Jetté & Jones 2000: 603, 860; Jones 1978: 23. Verb with polysemy: 'to be black / to be dark blue'. Paradigm: =ƛʼǝc [neuter imperf.] / =ƛʼiːs [transitional imperf.] / =ƛʼiːc [transitional perf.]. Also functions as the noun-like adjective ƛʼǝc-ǝʔ 'black' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 604].
Some less commonly used expressions for 'black' are derived from tʼaːs 'charcoal': the verb =t=tʼaːs 'to be black' and the noun-like adjective tʼaːz-ǝʔ 'black' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 545].
Degexit'an:=ƛʼǝc3
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 55; Kari 1976: 50. Verbal stem: 'to be black'. Cf. the examples in [Taff et al. 2007]: "Use the black ones", "They used to make pots out of black clay", "coffee (lit. black hot liquid)", "I used all the black thread".
The second candidate is =ʐǝŋ̥, quoted in [Kari 1978: 55; Taff et al. 2007] with the same meaning 'to be black'. In [Kari 1976: 67], however, =ʐǝŋ̥ is glossed as 'to be dark / to be ripen'; examples in [Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 46] support the translation 'to be dark' for =ʐǝŋ̥: "His face is black", 'pepper (lit. black salt)", "brown (lit. it is dark colored)", "rain cloud (lit. black cloud)".
Sarsi:=s=kɒ̀š4
Li 1930b: 21; Cook 1984: 166. Verbal stem: 'to be black'.
The archaic root zin '(to be) black' is retained in the expression mɒ̄-ɣɒ̄-zín-ɒ̀ʔ 'wolf', literally 'its hair (is) black' [Hoijer & Joël 1963: 74]. Note that zín-ì is erroneously quoted in [Hoijer 1956: 223] for the Swadesh meaning 'black'.
NUMBER:9
WORD:blood
Hupa:cʰeː=liŋ ~ cʰeː=lin1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 735; Golla 1996: 12. The variant ...=lin originates from *=lin-i. A nominalized formation from the verb =lin 'to flow', cʰeː=...=lin 'to flow (of blood), bleed' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 763; Golla 1996: 12, 37]. For the so-called "simple prefix" cʰeː- cf. [Golla 1970: 147]; the meaning of this element is unclear.
Mattole:possr=cʰeː=lˈin-eʔ1
Li 1930: 131. Nominalized formation from the verb =lin 'to flow' [Li 1930: 122] (final -eʔ is the izafet exponent). For the prefix cʰeː-, see notes on Hupa.
Bear River dialect: possr=se=lˈen-eʔ 'blood' [Goddard 1929: 314], the same verbal formation as in Mattole proper. Cf. the non-possessed form with the specific meaning se=lin 'blood of deer' [Goddard 1929: 314].
Kato:seː=lin1
Goddard 1912: 30; Curtis 1924: 201. Used without obligatory possessor prefixes. Derived from the verb =lin 'to flow'; seː= corresponds to the Hupa & Mattole prefix cʰeː=.
Taldash Galice:taɬ2
Hoijer 1973: 53; Hoijer 1956: 223. The possessed form is possr=taɬ.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:tǝl2
Kari 2007: 96, 346; Kari 1977: 96. Possessed: possr=tǝl-a.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:ku=ta=ɬ=tʰin3
Kari 2007: 96, 346; Kari 1977: 96. Possessed: possr=kutaɬtʰin-ʔa.
Inland Tanaina:kʰa=ta=ɬ=tʰin3
Kari 2007: 96, 346; Kari 1977: 96; Wassillie 1979: 12. Possessed: possr=kʰadaɫtʰin [Kari 2007: 96] or possr=kʰadaɫtʰin-a [Kari 1977: 96].
Iliamna Tanaina:kʰa=ta=ɬ=tʰin3
Kari 2007: 96, 346; Kari 1977: 96.
TFN_NOTES:
According to [Kari 2007; Wassillie 1979], can be used without obligatory possessive prefixes in all the dialects; in [Kari 1977], however, only possessed suffixed forms are quoted.
The old root for 'blood' is attested as Upper Inlet tǝl 'blood' (and also retained in all the dialects in the expression for 'red' q.v.). In other Tanaina lects, tǝl was superseded with descriptive formations, based on the root tʰin. The original meaning of tʰin is unclear. In [Kari 2007: 96], the bound root tʰin is interpreted as 'liquid': Outer Inlet ku-ta-ɬ-tʰin literally means 'this (ku-) enclosed liquid' and Inland-Iliamna kʰa-ta-ɬ-tʰin literally means 'abdomen (kʰa-) liquid' (for kʰa- cf. notes on 'belly').
If so, the same root tʰin is contained in vi=l=tʰin 'partially boiled or roasted meat' (all dialects) [Kari 2007: 281] - 'one that has liquid inside', according to Kari; and possr=ti=ɬ=tʰin 'gallbladder' (all dialects) [Kari 2007: 95].
Central Ahtena:tel2
Kari 1990: 148, 487; Kari & Buck 1975: 60; Smelcer 2010: 44.
Lower Ahtena: tel [Kari 1990: 148, 487; Kari & Buck 1975: 60; Smelcer 2010: 44].
Western Ahtena: tel [Kari 1990: 148, 487; Kari & Buck 1975: 60; Smelcer 2010: 44].
Mentasta Ahtena:tel2
Kari 1990: 148, 487; Kari & Buck 1975: 60; Smelcer 2010: 44.
AHT_NOTES:
Can be used without obligatory possessor prefixes. The expression for 'red' q.v. is based on this anatomical term.
Dogrib:possr=tòː2
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 25, 40, 146. The original non-possessed variant is tóh, as in possr=tóh-tʼèː 'blood-clot' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 25].
North Slavey (Hare):poss=tél-éʔ2
Rice 1978: 45, 122; Hoijer 1956: 222. The expression for 'red' (q.v.) is also based on this noun.
Tanacross:tèɬ2
Arnold et al. 2009: 60; Holton 2000: 341; Brean & Milanowski 1979: 3; McRoy 1973: 2; Shinen 1958: 4. Can be used without obligatory possessor prefixes.
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):taɬ2
Milanowski 2009: 15, 69. Apparently, can be used without obligatory possessor prefixes.
Kari 1994: 68, 371; Tuttle 2009: 25. In [Kari 1994], quoted as tǝl, which could be a typo. Possessed: possr=tǝl-aʔ. Apparently, this anatomic term is normally applicable to humans. Cf. the denominative verb =l=tǝɬ 'to be red' [Kari 1994: 68].
Distinct from ðǝ=kʰʌ-n-i 'animal blood / blood soup' [Kari 1994: 153], literally 'object in open shallow container' with the classificatory verb =kʰʌ 'to be in open shallow container', -i is the relativizing suffix.
Central Carrier:possr=u=s̪=kʰai-ʔ4
Poser 1998/2013: 518, 617; Poser 2011a: 42; Antoine et al. 1974: 42, 298. Literally 'it is located in open container' with the classificatory verb =kʰai 'to handle the contents of an open container' [Poser 1998/2013: 1221, 1255].
Koyukon:lǝ=qʰoː-n-ǝ4
Jetté & Jones 2000: 331, 861; Jones 1978: 23. Polysemy: 'blood / blood vessel'. Literally 'object in open shallow container', from the classificatory verb =qʰoː-n̥ [neuter imperf.] / =qʰoː-ʔ [neuter perf.] 'to be in open shallow container' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 331]. Apparently, this is specifically a Central word for 'blood'. As is noted in [Jetté & Jones 2000: 331]: "The proper word for 'blood' is tǝɬ, probably discarded upon the death of some individual in whose name it entered".
The Upper and Lower dialects retain the old term tǝɬ 'blood' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 130]. Also this word is marginally used in the Central dialect with the meaning 'bloody' (as in tǝɬ nǝlaːn̥ 'bloody meat').
Degexit'an:tǝɬ2
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 38; Chapman 1914: 225. Alienable possession.
Sarsi:possr=tíƛ-ɒ̀2
Hoijer & Joël 1963: 70; Hoijer 1956: 222; Nanagusja 1996a: 45. Note the lack of the expected final -ʔ in the suffix.
NUMBER:10
WORD:bone
Hupa:possr=cʼinʔ ~ possr=cʼiŋʔ ~ possr=cʼin-eʔ1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 738; Golla 1996: 13, 56. Polysemy: 'bone / leg / needle, awl (made from a sharpened bone)'. The variants =cʼiŋʔ < *=cʼin-ʔ < *=cʼin-eʔ; the variants =cʼinʔ is secondary.
Mattole:possr=cʼˈin-eʔ1
Li 1930: 134. Final -eʔ is the izafet exponent.
Bear River dialect: the basic term for 'bone' is apparently attested in the collocation palːa sinː-eʔ '(deer's) wrist bone' [Goddard 1929: 296, 310] (with palːa '?').
Kato:cʼǝŋ1
Goddard 1912: 20; Curtis 1924: 201. Used without obligatory possessor prefixes.
Taldash Galice:cʼan1
Hoijer 1973: 59; Hoijer 1956: 223. The possessed forms are possr=cʼanʔ-e or possr=cʼat-eʔ (both < *possr=cʼan-eʔ). Polysemy: 'bone / leg' (attested for the variant possr=cʼat-eʔ). In [Landar 1977: 294], quoted as cʼoʔ (sic!).
Upper Inlet Tanaina:possr=cʼǝn ~ possr=cʼǝn-a1
Kari 2007: 86, 346; Kari 1977: 95.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:possr=ʁǝs2
Kari 2007: 86, 346; Kari 1977: 95.
Inland Tanaina:possr=cʼǝn1
Kari 2007: 86, 346; Kari 1977: 95. In [Wassillie 1979: 12] and [Kari 1977: 95], the form possr=i=z=tʰin (Upper Inlet possr=i=y=tʰin) 'bone' is also quoted (the only term for 'bone' in [Wassillie 1979]), specified as 'longish bone, tibia, ulna, femur' for all the dialects in [Kari 2007: 12, 86]. Etymologically tʰin is a classificatory root '(to be / to handle) an elongated object', cf. tʰin, e.g., in Inland ƛʼu=z=tʰin 'enclosed caribou fence (teardrop shape)', lit. 'rear long object' [Kari 2007: 213] (ƛʼu- 'buttocks, underside of a container').
Iliamna Tanaina:possr=cʼǝn1
Kari 2007: 86, 346; Kari 1977: 95.
TFN_NOTES:
=cʼǝn is the old root for 'bone'. In Outer Inlet, it was replaced with the etymologically obscure term =ʁǝs ("elite replacement" according to Kari).
Central Ahtena:cʼen1
Kari 1990: 405, 488; Kari & Buck 1975: 60; Smelcer 2010: 44.
Poser 1998/2013: 510, 621; Poser 2011a: 43; Antoine et al. 1974: 52, 299.
Koyukon:ƛʼǝn̥1
Jetté & Jones 2000: 600, 862; Jones 1978: 24. Polysemy: 'bone / skeleton / leg / shell'. Alienable possession; possessed: possr=ƛʼǝn-ǝʔ.
Degexit'an:tθʼǝn̥1
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 32; Chapman 1914: 221.
Sarsi:possr=cʼín-ɒ̀ʔ1
Hoijer & Joël 1963: 71; Hoijer 1956: 222.
NUMBER:11
WORD:breast
Hupa:possr=tʼah-tiy-eʔ1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 789; Golla 1996: 14. Glossed as 'chest, breast'. Alternatively can be analyzed as possr=tʼah-ti-ye-ʔ. A descriptive formation; the underlying meaning is unclear, however.
Distinct from possr=cʼoː-ʔ with polysemy: 'female breast / milk' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 739; Golla 1996: 14] and the relational noun possr=čeːʔ-xʷ 'at smb.'s breast, in front of smb.' [Golla 1996: 14] (the latter contains the locative -xʷ(i) 'at' [Golla 1970: 275]). The root čeʔ is also retained in expressions for 'breastbone' [Golla 1996: 14] and 'to be tired' [Golla 1996: 97].
Mattole:possr=cʼoː-ʔ2
Li 1930: 10, 131. Polysemy: 'breast / milk' with the example "her breast, her milk". It is unclear whether possr=cʼoː-ʔ denotes just 'female breast' or 'breast (in general)', but, since Li does not quote any other expressions for 'breast', we prefer to treat possr=cʼoː-ʔ as a generic term.
In [Kari 2007; Kari 1977], glossed as 'his or her breast' for all the dialects, i.e., applied to both men and women.
Cf. the second term possr=čaʁ (all dialects; Upper Inlet possr=caʁ), glossed as 'chest area, front area' in [Kari 2007: 92] and 'chest and stomach' in [Kari 1977: 103] with the Upper Inlet example: "When that bear put his front legs upon the rock, he was going to hit him on the chest someplace' [Lovick 2005: 112 ex. 3.48b].
Central Ahtena:possr=paː-ʔ4
Kari 1990: 98, 489; Kari & Buck 1975: 67; Smelcer 2010: 48.
Western Ahtena: possr=paː-ʔ [Kari 1990: 98, 489; Kari & Buck 1975: 67; Smelcer 2010: 48].
Mentasta Ahtena:possr=tʼuːʔ5
Kari 1990: 351, 489; Kari & Buck 1975: 67; Smelcer 2010: 48. Should rather be analyzed as possr=tʼuː-ʔ, cf. the variant tʼuː- in the compound possr=tʼuː-cʰe-ʔ 'nipple' [Kari 1990: 351] (lit. 'breast's stone').
AHT_NOTES:
It should be noted that in [Kari 1990: 98], possr=paːʔ is apparently inaccurately quoted as the Common Ahtena term for 'breast'. Both possr=paːʔ and possr=tʼuːʔ are applicable to men and women.
It is unclear how the Proto-Ahtena word for 'breast' is to be reconstructed. External etymology suggests that possr=tʼuːʔ originally meant 'female breast'. On the contrary, the non-possessed form paː synchronously means (1) 'edge, side, border', (2) 'milk', (3) '(to be) grey' [Kari 1990: 96 ff.]. Thus, the original meaning of paː could be 'edge' with the further shift > 'breast'.
There is also a third Ahtena term: possr=tʼaːy [Kari 1990: 342] with polysemy: 'front (of smth.) / breast', applied to both humans and animals (Kari glosses it as 'chest', opposed to possr=paːʔ and possr=tʼuːʔ, glossed as 'breast'). Since possr=tʼaːy is not present in [Kari & Buck 1975; Smelcer 2010] as a separate anatomic term, it is likely that its meaning 'breast' is marginal.
Dogrib:possr=tʼòː5
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 45, 100, 147. Polysemy: 'breast / milk'. In the anatomic meaning, probably applicable to both men and women, although it is not definitely clear (cf., e.g., the unisex compound possr=tʼòː-kʼʷõ̀ː 'breastbone, sternum' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 45] with =kʼʷõ̀ː 'bone').
North Slavey (Hare):possr=tʼák-éʔ6
Rice 1978: 99, 128. There are two documented words for 'breast (generic)':
1) possr=wíl-éʔ, glossed as 'chest, body' in [Rice 1978: 106], cf. the collocation 'tuberculosis (lit. chest's pain)';
2) possr=tʼák-éʔ, glossed as 'chest (breast area)' [Rice 1978: 99], cf. the collocation 'breast bone'.
However, the only Hare equivalent for English 'body' offered in [Rice 1978: 122] is possr=yín-éʔ, whereas possr=wíl-éʔ is not quoted with this semantics. Thus it is likely that the underlying meaning of =wíl-éʔ is 'torso' or 'upper part of torso' rather than 'breast, chest' itself. Because of this we tentatively fill the slot with =tʼák-éʔ.
Distinct from possr=tʼóy-éʔ, glossed as 'breast' in [Rice 1978: 99], which apparently specifically denotes 'female breast', since the only found examples are "milk (lit. breast's water)", "nipple (lit. breast's head)" [Rice 1978: 99], "first teeth (lit. breast's teeth)" [Rice 1989: 189].
Tanacross:possr=cèh-čʰíː7
Arnold et al. 2009: 78; Holton 2000: 342; Brean & Milanowski 1979: 25; McRoy 1973: 8; Shinen 1958: 3. Glossed as 'chest'. Literally 'tip of cèh' with possr=čʰíː 'end, tip, point of physical object' [Arnold et al. 2009: 109]. Cf. possr=cèh-tʰàh, glossed as 'chest area' [Arnold et al. 2009: 78], literally 'in cèh' with the same morpheme cèh and the postposition -tʰàh 'in' [Holton 2000: 282]. The root cèh may be influenced on the part of possr=cěːy-ʔ 'heart' (q.v.).
Distinct from possr=tʼúː-ʔ with polysemy: 'female breast / milk' [Arnold et al. 2009: 65, 174; Holton 2000: 341; Brean & Milanowski 1979: 25; McRoy 1973: 8].
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):possr=ceh-tadn7
Milanowski 2009: 16, 69. Glossed as 'chest'. The first element ceh may be influenced on the part of possr=ceː 'heart' (q.v.), the final -tadn (< -tat-ǝʔ) is unclear. Cf. possr=ceh-ʔoɣŋ-ʔ 'lungs' [Milanowski 2009: 16], which contains the same root ceh.
Distinct from possr=tʼuː-ʔ with polysemy: 'female breast / milk' [Milanowski 2009: 26, 69].
Northway: possr=ceh-tadn, glossed as 'chest' [Milanowski 2007: 5], possr=tʼuː-ʔ with polysemy: 'female breast / milk' [Milanowski 2007: 4].
Scottie Creek: possr=ceh-čĩ̀ː-ʔ, glossed as 'chest', morphologically unclear [John 1997: 11]; cf. the quoted example: "My chest hurts". Distinct from possr=tʼuː-ʔ with polysemy: 'female breast / milk' [John 1997: 11, 19].
Lower Tanana (Minto):possr=ay̥-tǝ-ɣʌn-aʔ7
Kari 1994: 98, 133, 380. Glossed as 'chest'. The first element ay̥ is possr=ay-aʔ 'heart' (q.v.) or influenced on the part of possr=ay-aʔ; the morpheme chain tǝ-ɣʌn is unclear (Kari suggests that it contains possr=ɣʌn-aʔ 'hump, humpback'). The shortened morpheme a- 'chest / heart' is used as the first element of various compounds [Kari 1994: 97].
Distinct from possr=tθʼu-ʔ with polysemy: 'female breast / milk' [Kari 1994: 320, 373].
Central Carrier:possr=ci-kʼʌt7
Poser 1998/2013: 153, 647; Antoine et al. 1974: 301. Polysemy: 'chest, breast region / yard measure'. Cf. Antoine et al.'s example "his chest hurts". Literally 'on top of ci', where the first element is possr=ci 'heart' q.v. or influenced on the part of possr=ci, plus the postposition -kʼʌt 'in, on, on top of' [Poser 1998/2013: 223].
Distinct from possr=ci-kʼa glossed as 'breast (not specifically teats)' in [Poser 1998/2013: 153, 647] (which contains =ci 'heart' and unclear kʼa).
Distinct from possr=yoh 'chest (thoracic cavity) / house, home / in (postposition)' [Poser 1998/2013: 563; Antoine et al. 1974: 53], cf. Antoine et al.'s example "The man's chest pains because he has tuberculosis".
Distinct from yʌt 'breast (inside), chest' [Morice 1932, 1: 26] (not confirmed in [Poser 1998/2013: 584]).
Distinct from possr=c̪ʼu-ʔ 'female breast / milk' [Poser 1998/2013: 509; Antoine et al. 1974: 51, 237].
Koyukon:possr=coːʁ-ǝ7
Jetté & Jones 2000: 175, 865. Final -ǝ is not entirely clear, cf. the suffix -ǝ 'general area or time' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 10]. Generic term glossed with polysemy: 'chest, bosom, breast / on the front of' (distinct from possr=caːy-ǝʔ 'heart' q.v.). Cf. some examples: "he sleeps against my chest (said of a child)", "he (medicine person) made a slight choking noise in his upper chest (a sign that his talking spirit wanted to enter his body to speak)".
A second, probably more marginal candidate is possr=toː-ʁoːn-ǝʔ 'chest, torso' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 255; Jones 1978: 36], literally 'bending forward' with toː- 'front' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 137] and ʁoːnʔ 'stooping, bending over, crouching' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 254]. It should be noted, however, that possr=toː-ʁoːn-ǝʔ is quoted in [Jones 1978: 36] as the default expression for 'chest'.
Distinct from possr=tʼuk-ǝʔ 'breast / nipple / bud of tree' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 556, 865; Jones 1978: 27]. Apparently it refers specifically to 'female breast', cf. the examples: "milk is dripping from my breast", "she is weaned [lit.: she discarded the breast]" [Jetté & Jones 2000: 556]. The example "his breast" offered in [Jones 1978: 27] can be an inaccuracy. Cf. the cognate verb =tʼuːt [neuter imperf.] / =tʼuk [repetitive/customary imperf.] / =tʼuːt [repetitive perf.] 'to suck' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 555].
Degexit'an:possr=oːɢ7
Kari 1978: 35.
Two terms are in competition here: possr=oːɢ and possr=toː-ʁoːn. Out of these, possr=oːɢ is specified as 'chest and sternum area' in [Kari 1978: 35], but browsing through texts in [Chapman 1914] suggests that possr=oːɢ is the basic expression for 'breast' applicable to men, women and animals. Cf. the examples: "'It will be here at my breast (=oːɢ)', said he. Then they put it around his neck. He wore it on his bosom (=oːɢ)" [Chapman 1914: 115], "If any great beast comes in where you are, hold the stick tightly against his breast (=oːɢ)" [Chapman 1914: 130], "I [a woman] will put these stones at the sides of my chest (=toːʁoːn), and on my breast (=oːɢ) and forehead" [Chapman 1914: 130], "set it [the stick] quickly against that bear's breast (=oːɢ)" [Chapman 1914: 134]. Surprisingly, possr=oːɢ is not quoted as a separate entry in [Taff et al. 2007] at all.
The second candidate is the deverbative possr=toː-ʁoːn, glossed as generic 'chest' in [Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 35] (literally 'bending forward', see notes on Koyukon). This word is attested only once in [Chapman 1914: 130] in the aforementioned example: "I [a woman] will put these stones at the sides of my chest (=toːʁoːn), and on my breast (=oːɢ) and forehead", where =toː-ʁoːn means 'torso' rather than 'chest, breast'. On the other hand, [Taff et al. 2007] offer several instances for =toː-ʁoːn 'chest, breast': "His chest hurts", "My chest is sick", "He has a big chest". Nevertheless, we prefer to fill the slot with possr=oːɢ.
Distinct from possr=maːmaː-ʔ 'female breast' [Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 36; Chapman 1914: 213].
Sarsi:possr=cʼūw-ɒ̀2
Hoijer & Joël 1963: 68; Hoijer 1956: 222. Paradigm: cʼū / possr=cʼūw-ɒ̀, with polysemy: 'breast / milk'. Glossed specifically as 'female breast', but the example "Young men their breasts who are cut go in. [...] While he lies his breasts they cut [...] The ropes sticks his breasts are stuck through they loop over" [Goddard 1915: 195] proves that it can be applied to 'male chest' as well.
NUMBER:12
WORD:burn tr.
Hupa:=lit1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 763; Golla 1996: 15, 35. Polysemy: 'to burn (trans.) / to set fire to / to burn (intrans.)'. The root variant =lil is progressive (< =lit-iɬ-i [Golla 1977: 356]). The same root as ɬit 'smoke' q.v.
Mattole:=kʼaŋʔ2
Li 1930: 106. Polysemy: 'to burn (trans.) / to burn (intrans.)'. Originates from *=kʼanʔ; the heavy stem is =kʼaːʔn < *=kʼanʔ-i [Li 1930: 22].
Bear River dialect: not attested.
Kato:=lǝt1
Goddard 1912: 64. Polysemy: 'to burn (trans.) / to burn (intrans.)'. The same root as ɬǝt 'smoke' q.v.
In [Hoijer 1956: 223], the generic term for 'to burn' (trans.?) is, however, quoted as the unclear form =kʼaɬ.
Distinct from =lat 'to burn up (intrans.)' [Hoijer 1973: 72] (the same root as ɬat 'smoke' q.v.).
Upper Inlet Tanaina:=qʼǝn2
Kari 2007: 249.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:=qʼǝn2
Kari 2007: 249.
Inland Tanaina:=qʼǝn2
Kari 2007: 249; Wassillie 1979: 15.
Iliamna Tanaina:=qʼǝn2
Kari 2007: 249.
TFN_NOTES:
Actually, =qʼǝn is only quoted as the generic verb for 'to burn (intrans.)' (with polysemy: 'to burn (intrans.) / to be burnable, flammable' in [Kari 2007: 249]), but no verbs for 'to burn (trans.)' have been found in the available sources. Since lexical opposition between the transitive and intransitive meanings 'to burn' is atypical for Athapaskan, we assume that Tanaina =qʼǝn has the polysemy 'to burn (intrans.) / to burn (trans.)'.
Cf. the cognate verb =qʼu-š (Inland, Iliamna =qʼu-x) [imperf.] / =qʼun [perf.] 'to make a fire, build a fire' (all dialects) [Kari 2007: 249].
Distinct from =lǝt 'to start a fire' (all dialects) [Kari 2007: 249, 250]; the same root as 'smoke' q.v.
The situation here is rather uncertain, since there are at least three verbs glossed as 'to burn' (both intransitive and transitive) in [Rice 1978; Rice 1989].
1) =kʼõ̀ 'to make fire, burn (trans.)', =t=kʼõ 'to be on fire, burn (intr.)' [Rice 1978: 221, 284, 443]. Cf. attested examples - transitive: "We burned all the wood that was chopped" [Rice 1978: 284], "s/he made fire" [Rice 1989: 603]. Intransitive: "His house is on fire", "Because green wood is burning, the smoke is strong", "The grass started to burn" [Rice 1978: 221], "candle (lit. burning fat)" [Rice 1989: 171], "it burned" [Rice 1989: 762].
2) intransitive =kè=...=lĩ̀ [imperf., opt.] / =kè=...=lè [perf.], transitive - same stem with the "classifier" h-. It is glossed simply as 'to burn (trans./intrans.)' in [Rice 1978: 282, 448], but more specifically as 'to burn to ashes' in [Rice 1989: 895]. See [Rice 1989: 762] for the postposition obj-kè 'on obj'. Without the exponent -kè, this verb means 'to singe' [Rice 1978: 448]. Cf. the attested example for 'to burn (trans.)': "He's burning garbage" [Rice 1978: 284]; for 'to burn (intrans.)': "She burned in a fire", "The duck was burned", "Will it all burn down?" [Rice 1978: 282], "it burned" [Rice 1989: 762].
3) Transitive =h=ɬà 'to burn, make fire' [Rice 1978: 281, 450], historically < *=ƛʰa. Cf. attested examples: "I burned the wood" [Rice 1978: 281], "Make fire!", "I made fire", "Burn the garbage!" [Rice 1978: 363], "I burned it all up" [Rice 1989: 603], "s/he burned up obj" [Rice 1989: 712], "I burned up all the wood" [Rice 1978: 386].
Provisionally we fill the slot with =kʼõ̀, since, on the ground of the available data, one might suspect that other candidates actually have more specific meanings: =kè=...=lĩ̀ 'to burn to ashes' and =h=ɬà 'to burn up' (as it is translated in examples in [Rice 1989]).
Tanacross:=kʼãː2
Arnold et al. 2009: 69; Shinen 1958: 30. Polysemy: 'to burn (intrans.) / to burn (trans.)'. Paradigm: =kʼãː [imperf.] / =kʼén-ʔ [perf.], for the stem =kʼãː see [Arnold et al. 2009: 118; Shinen 1958: 30].
Poser 1998/2013: 627, 1221, 1256; Poser 2011a: 45; Antoine et al. 1974: 300. Polysemy: 'to burn (intrans.) / to burn (trans.)'.
Koyukon:=ɬ=qʼoːn̥2
Jetté & Jones 2000: 363, 867; Jones 1978: 30. Paradigm: =qʼoː-y̥ [momentaneous imperf.] / =qʼun̥ [continuative imperf.] / =qʼoːn̥ [perf.]. Polysemy: 'to burn (intrans.) / to burn (trans.)'.
Degexit'an:=qʰʊnʔ4
Chapman 1914: 229. Derived from the noun qʰʊnʔ 'fire' q.v. Cf. some examples: "His wife also cut off her hair and burned it" [Chapman 1914: 126], "Then he began to cry, and burned his parka, hair, and back, and went off as a wolverene" [Chapman 1914: 162].
Sarsi:=s=kʼɒ́n-2
Li 1930b: 22; Hoijer 1956: 223; Cook 1984: 182. Polysemy: 'to burn (intrans.) / to burn (trans.)'. Paradigm: =s=kʼɒ́ ~=s=kʼɒ́n-.
NUMBER:12
WORD:burn tr.
Hupa:
Mattole:
Kato:
Taldash Galice:
Upper Inlet Tanaina:
Outer Inlet Tanaina:
Inland Tanaina:
Iliamna Tanaina:
Central Ahtena:
Mentasta Ahtena:
Dogrib:
North Slavey (Hare):
Tanacross:=kʼén-ʔ2
Perfective stem.
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):=kʼan-ʔ2
Perfective stem.
Lower Tanana (Minto):
Central Carrier:
Koyukon:
Degexit'an:
Sarsi:
NUMBER:13
WORD:claw (nail)
Hupa:possr=laʔ=kʰʸeʔcʼ1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 757; Golla 1996: 18, 35. Polysemy: 'fingernail / front claw'. Literally = laʔ 'hand' q.v. + kʰʸeʔcʼ 'claw, nail'. The latter morpheme is probably unattested outside of this compound as well as the parallel form possr=xeʔ=kʰʸeʔcʼ 'toenail' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 757; Golla 1996: 98] ('foot' q.v. + 'claw, nail').
Mattole:possr=laʔ=ɕʰˈeʔs1
Li 1930: 132. Meaning glossed as 'fingernail'. The first element =laʔ denotes 'hand' q.v.
Bear River dialect: not attested. Cf. the specific term possr=kʰe=šimː-e 'toenail' [Goddard 1929: 298], where the first element is possr=kʰe(-)ʔ 'foot' q.v., whereas =šimː should be the Bear River term for 'nail'.
Kato:la=čʰaht-e1
Curtis 1924: 201. Unreliable transcription, although the second element apparently corresponds to Hupa & Mattole. The first element =la(ʔ) denotes 'hand' q.v.
Taldash Galice:possr=kan-yo-ʔ2
Hoijer 1973: 56; Hoijer 1956: 223. Perhaps a compound with the unclear second element -yo-. Polysemy: 'claw / fingernail'. In [Hoijer 1956: 223], quoted as possr=kʷan-yo - a contraction from possessed *wa= kan-yo-ʔ 'his/its nail' (see [Hoijer 1966: 321]).
Upper Inlet Tanaina:possr=lu=qǝn-a2
Kari 2007: 92, 350; Kari 1977: 102.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:possr=lu=qǝn-ʔa2
Kari 2007: 92, 350; Kari 1977: 102.
Inland Tanaina:possr=lu=qǝn-a2
Kari 2007: 92, 350; Kari 1977: 102.
Iliamna Tanaina:possr=lu=qǝn-ʔa2
Kari 2007: 92, 350; Kari 1977: 102.
TFN_NOTES:
Polysemy: 'fingernail / front claw / front hoof' in all the dialects (for the latter meaning see [Kari 2007: 12]). A compound of lu, the old root for 'hand' q.v., and qǝn *'claw'. The latter is also attested in possr=qʰa-qǝn-a 'claw, hind claw' (all dialects) [Kari 2007: 12], with qʰa 'foot' q.v.
Central Ahtena:possr=la=qan-eʔ2
Kari 1990: 192, 520; Kari & Buck 1975: 66; Smelcer 2010: 48.
Western Ahtena: possr=la=qan-eʔ [Kari 1990: 192, 520; Kari & Buck 1975: 66; Smelcer 2010: 48].
Mentasta Ahtena:possr=la=qan-ʔ2
Kari 1990: 192, 520; Kari & Buck 1975: 66; Smelcer 2010: 48.
AHT_NOTES:
Polysemy: 'fingernail / claw or hoof of forefoot'. Literally 'qan of the hand' with =la- 'hand' q.v. The root qan seems unattested outside this compound and the derived form possr=qʰe=la=qan-eʔ 'toenail / hindclaw' [Kari 1990: 192] with =qʰe- 'foot' q.v.
Dogrib:possr=lá=kõ̀ː2
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 31, 44, 165. Glossed with polysemy: 'fingernail / claw'; literally 'hand's nail' with =là 'hand' q.v.
Distinct from the specific term possr=kʰé=kõ̀ː 'toenail' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 43], literally 'foot's nail' with =kʰè 'foot' q.v.
The plain root =kõ̀ː 'claw, nail' seems to be unattested. It is interesting that synchronously, =kõ̀ː 'claw, nail' has merged with =kõ̀ː 'arm' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 41].
North Slavey (Hare):possr=là=kón-éʔ2
Rice 1978: 71, 138; Hoijer 1956: 222. Meaning 'fingernail', cf. the mirroring expression possr=kʰiè=kón-éʔ 'toenail' [Rice 1978: 65, 177]. Literally 'kon of hand' (with possr=lá-ʔ 'hand') and 'kon of foot' (with possr=kʰié-ʔ 'foot').
Tanacross:possr=ìn=làː=kẽ̌y-ʔ2
Arnold et al. 2009: 118; Holton 2000: 343; Brean & Milanowski 1979: 23; McRoy 1973: 9. Literally 'kẽy of hand' with possr=ìn=ɬ̬á-ʔ 'hand' q.v. The root kẽy *'nail, claw' is also attested in possr=kʰè=là(ː)=kẽ̌y-ʔ 'claw; hoof' [Arnold et al. 2009: 82, 147], literally 'kẽy of hand of foot/paw' with the additional possessor possr=kʰé-ʔ 'foot' q.v.
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):possr=laː=kãy-ʔ2
Milanowski 2009: 19. Meaning specifically 'fingernail', literally 'kãy of hand'. Cf. the parallel compound possr=kʰeː-kãy-ʔ 'toenail' [Milanowski 2009: 18], literally 'kãy of foot'.
Kari 1994: 117, 403. Polysemy: 'fingernail / claw / hoof of forefoot', literally 'kʊn of hand' (with possr=lʌ-ʔ 'hand'). Cf. the compound possr=kʰa-lǝ-kʊn-aʔ 'toenail' [Kari 1994: 117], literally 'fingernail of foot' (with lǝ-kʊn < lʌ-kʊn and possr=kʰa-ʔ 'foot').
Central Carrier:possr=la=ki2
Poser 1998/2013: 232, 711; Antoine et al. 1974: 32, 308. Polysemy: 'fingernail / claw of forepaw', literally 'ki of hand' (with possr=la 'hand'). Cf. the similar compound possr=kʰe=ŋi (< *possr=kʰe=n=ki)'toenail / claw of rear paw' [Poser 1998/2013: 210, 962; Antoine et al. 1974: 27] (possr=kʰe 'foot' and -n- which occurs in some other compounds with =kʰe). The main root =ki is not used independently.
Koyukon:possr=ǝn=loː=qun-ǝʔ2
Jetté & Jones 2000: 219, 906; Jones 1978: 61. Polysemy: 'fingernail / claws or hooves of the forelegs'. Literally 'qun of hand' with possr=loː-ʔ 'hand' q.v. and the anatomical gender exponent ǝn-/nǝ- [Jetté & Jones 2000: 460]. The main root =qun is not used independently.
Cf. the second compound possr=qʰaː=l=qun-ǝʔ 'toenail / claws or hooves of the hind legs' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 219], literally 'fingernail of foot' (with l-qun < loː-qun and possr=qʰaː-ʔ 'foot').
Degexit'an:possr=loː=qǝŋ ~ possr=leː=qǝŋ2
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 35. According to [Taff et al. 2007], with polysemy: 'fingernail / claw'. Literally 'qǝŋ of hand' with possr=loː-ʔ 'hand' q.v. The main root =qǝŋ is not used independently.
Cf. the second compound possr=qʰǝ=lǝ=qǝŋ 'toenail / claw' [Kari 1978: 37], literally 'fingernail of foot' (with lǝ-qǝŋ < loː-qǝŋ and possr=qʰaː-ʔ 'foot' q.v.).
Sarsi:possr=la=kɒn-a2
Nanagusja 1996b: 154. Attested in the example "he touched bottom and got some mud under his nails". Literally 'kɒn of hand' with possr=là-ʔ 'hand' q.v.
Li 1930: 125. Distinct from ʔi=s=tʼˈoʔɬ 'fog' [Li 1930: 128] (where ʔi- could be the indefinite object exponent [Li 1930: 65] and -s- could be the durative perfective exponent [Li 1930: 66]).
Bear River dialect: ʔah 'cloud' [Goddard 1929: 295, 314]. Distinct from ʔistʰoʔoɬ 'fog' [Goddard 1929: 304, 314].
Arnold et al. 2009: 83; Holton 2000: 342; Brean & Milanowski 1979: 12; McRoy 1973: 6; Shinen 1958: 12.
Distinct from čʼè=cʼéƛ 'low clouds along mountains' [Arnold et al. 2009: 83] (glossed as 'fog' in [Holton 2000: 343]), literally 'smth.'s brush' with cʼéƛ 'brush, bush (away from town)' [Arnold et al. 2009: 68, 69].
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):kʼoh2
Milanowski 2009: 19. Explained as 'general word for clouds of any number or size'.
Distinct from čʼi=cʼaɬ 'fog' [Milanowski 2009: 14, 74] (čʼi= is the indefinite possessive pronoun).
Northway: kʼoh 'cloud' [Milanowski 2007: 6].
Scottie Creek: kʼòh 'cloud' [John 1997: 63], tʰàː-š̬ɯːh 'fog' [John 1997: 64] (the first element tʰàː means 'water', for the second element cf. š̬ɯh 'snow' [John 1997: 66]).
Lower Tanana (Minto):kʼʊθ2
Kari 1994: 171, 381; Tuttle 2009: 45.
Distinct from ʌk 'fog, mist' [Kari 1994: 24, 406].
Central Carrier:kʼʷʌs̪ ~ kʼʷʌs2
Poser 1998/2013: 231, 652; Poser 2011a: 56; Antoine et al. 1974: 129, 302; Morice 1932, 1: 24. Poser quotes it with -s̪, Antoine et al. & Morice with -s. Cf. Poser's examples: "There were clouds this morning", "There are clouds present when it is going to rain".
Distinct from yat 'cloud', which is "used only in expressions about it being cloudy, not to refer to individual clouds" [Poser 1998/2013: 554].
Distinct from ʔa 'fog, mist' [Poser 1998/2013: 23; Antoine et al. 1974: 1].
Koyukon:yoː=qʼuɬ2
Jetté & Jones 2000: 368, 877; Jones 1978: 40. Glossed as 'cloud, cumulus cloud'. Literally 'cloud of sky' with yoː 'sky' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 696], although simple qʼuɬ 'cloud' is also used.
Degexit'an:qʼʊθ2
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 46.
Sarsi:nà=kʼús2
Hoijer 1956: 223; Cook 1984: 67. Initial nà= is not entirely clear.
NUMBER:15
WORD:cold
Hupa:=qʼacʼ1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 780; Golla 1996: 19; Golla 1970: 143, 249. In [Golla 1996: 19], also the reduced root variant =qʼucʼ is also quoted. Verbal root: 'to be cold'. Widely applicable (to things, water, humans, weather, etc.).
Distinct from =leː 'to be cold, frozen' (said of a person) [Sapir & Golla 2001: 763].
Mattole:=kʼac1
Li 1930: 28, 106. In [Li 1930: 28], this is specified as 'to be cold (of weather)', although in [Li 1930: 106], =kʼac is quoted as a generic term for 'to be cold'.
Distinct from =cʼiŋ 'to be frozen' (said of a person) [Li 1930: 111]; originates from *=cʼin; the heavy stem is =cʼin < *=cʼin-i [Li 1930: 21].
Bear River dialect: not attested. Cf. =cʰaŋ 'to be cold' (said of a person) [Goddard 1929: 298, 314].
Hoijer 1973: 68. Verbal root, glossed as 'to be(come) cold, cool off'. Paradigm: =kʼeʔ [imperf., perf.] / =kʼaːʔ-s [perf.] [Hoijer 1973: 68 No. 200, 69 No. 202; Hoijer 1956: 223]. Applied to weather and, apparently, to objects, as may be seen from the gloss 'to cool off'.
Cf. the second documented verb for 'to be cold': =kʰoɬ [Landar 1977: 294] which is, however, not a very reliable gloss.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:
Not attested.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:
Not attested.
Inland Tanaina:ǝ=ži4
Wassillie 1979: 23. Quoted by Wassillie as the only Inland term for 'cold (adj.)'. Applicable to both objects ('cold fat remains' [Wassillie 1979: 35]) and weather ('it's cold' [Wassillie 1979: 30], 'I am cold' [Wassillie 1979: 23]).
Iliamna Tanaina:
Not attested.
TFN_NOTES:
Expressions for 'cold', applicable to objects, are poorly documented in the available sources.
Cf. the exclamations '(it's) cold!': Upper Inlet ǝ=ƛi, Outer Inlet, Inland, Iliamna ǝ=ži [Kari 1977: 278]; the attested substantives with polysemy: 'cold, cold weather / north wind' are based on the same roots: Upper Inlet ǝƛi-ʔi, Outer Inlet ǝži-yi, Inland, Iliamna ǝži-ʔi [Kari 2007: 151; Kari 1977: 250] - literally 'the cold one' with the relative nominalizer -(ʔ)i / -(y)i [Kari 2007: 329; Boraas 2010: 17, 144].
Thus, it is very likely that the Upper Inlet expression for 'cold (adj.)' is ǝ=ƛi, in other dialects - ǝ=ži. Both words represent fossilized verbal forms.
Cf. also the Outer Inlet and Inland incorporated element ƛi- 'cold' [Tenenbaum 1978: 171; Boraas 2010: 126], cognate with Upper Inlet ǝ=ƛi.
Central Ahtena:=qʼacʼ1
Kari 1990: 252, 499.
Lower Ahtena: =qʼaʔs [Kari 1990: 252, 499].
Western Ahtena: =qʼacʼ [Kari 1990: 252, 499].
Mentasta Ahtena:=qʼac1
Kari 1990: 252, 499.
AHT_NOTES:
Proto-Ahtena =qʼacʼ. Verbal root 'to be cold'; applied to inanimate objects and weather.
Distinct from =ƛiː 'to be cold, frost-bitten, frozen', applicable to animate nouns [Kari 1990: 162, 499, 689].
Dogrib:=kʼò1
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 48, 117, 153. Verbal root: 'to be cold'. Applied to both weather/atmosphere (example: "It gets chilly at night") and objects (in the latter meaning glossed as 'to be cold to touch'). Paradigm: =kʼò / =kʼà.
Distinct from é=cá 'to be cold' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 25, 153]; apparently this is not a proper verb, but a fossilized verbal form, used as a noun-like adjective. The exact meaning and application of é=cá is unclear, but the explicit gloss écá 'cold weather' [Marinakis et al. 2007: 162] and the collocation écá-nèkʼé 'cold country, Arctic, north country' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 25] suggest that é=cá is applicable to weather, not objects.
Distinct from the deverbative substantive té=h=kʰó 'cough, cold, phlegm' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 15, 153].
North Slavey (Hare):=kʼà1
Rice 1978: 382, 442, 493. Verbal stem: 'to be cold'. Cf. the examples: "cold wind" [Rice 1978: 129], "The water is really cold" [Rice 1978: 382].
Distinct from the verb =kù '(it is) cold' [Rice 1978: 493], applicable specifically to weather, as in the examples: "I'm cold because my jacket is too thin" [Rice 1978: 219], "The cold made him shiver" [Rice 1978: 294], "I went in because it was cold outside" [Rice 1978: 397], "it is cold except for the house" [Rice 1989: 307].
Distinct from =ƛù (< =t=lù) 'to shiver / to be frozen, cold' [Rice 1978: 365, 424] as in "I almost froze" [Rice 1978: 365], "I am cold, starved, frozen" [Rice 1989: 453].
Tanacross:n=éː=kʼètθ1
Arnold et al. 2009: 84; Holton 2000: 226, 239, 349; Shinen 1958: 19. Verbal form 'it is cold' with the adjectival/gender exponent n= [Holton 2000: 237 ff.]. Applied to both objects and weather. In [Holton 2000], quoted as either n=éː=kʼèð or n=èː=kʼétθ. According to [Arnold et al. 2009], the verbal paradigm is =kʼètθ [imperf.] / =kʼàːtθ [perf.].
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):=kʼat1
Milanowski 2009: 45, 94. Verbal stem: 'to be cold', without further semantic specification. Cf. the adjectival form n=eː=kʼat 'cold'.
Distinct from u=nd=e=t=kʼɯː 'cold spell' [Milanowski 2009: 45], implying the verb =t=kʼɯː 'to get cold (of weather)'.
Scottie Creek: the noun-like adjective kʼɤt 'cold' as in "I'm drinking cold water" [John 1997: 39] and the verbal form n=eː=kʼɤt 'cold' as in "Is it cold outside?" [John 1997: 63]. Distinct from =kʼɯː 'to get cold (of weather)' [John 1997: 63, 64].
Lower Tanana (Minto):=kʼʊtθ1
Kari 1994: 172, 382; Tuttle 2009: 46. The transitional imperf. form is =kʼʌθ. Verbal stem: 'to be cold'; also functions as the noun-like adjective kʼʊtθ ~ kʼʊtθ-aʔ 'cold'. Applicable to both objects and weather. Cf. the examples: "cold water", "cold weather".
Distinct from the more marginal deverbal adjective ʔǝ=ƛi 'cold' [Kari 1994: 96] (with the non-informative examples "it is cold", "he is cold"); further the substantive ƛi 'cold', the verb =ƛi 'to starve' [Kari 1994: 96].
Central Carrier:=kʼʌz̪1
Poser 1998/2013: 653, 1221, 1256; Poser 2011a: 57; Antoine et al. 1974: 302. Verbal stem: 'to be cold', applicable to both objects and weather. Cf. its substantivized form hʌ=kʼʷʌz̪ 'cold' [Poser 1998/2013: 192].
Distinct from the substantive ƛi 'cold (as affecting the human body)' [Morice 1932, 1: 24] (not confirmed in [Poser 1998/2013: 151]) and the verb =t=ƛi 'to feel cold' [Poser 1998/2013: 653, 1219, 1251; Antoine et al. 1974: 302].
Koyukon:ǝ=cuː5
Jetté & Jones 2000: 179, 878; Jones 1978: 40. Adjectivized verbal form 'it is cold', applicable to both objects and weather. Cf. some examples: "His ears are cold" [Jones 1978: 54], "The floor is cold" [Jones 1978: 65], "It is cold out (= cold weather)" [Jones 1978: 114], "He would go hunting but it is too cold" [Jones 1978: 31]. This expression for 'cold' is used in the Central and Lower dialects.
In the Upper dialect, the form ǝ=ƛiː is used for 'cold' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 155], but it remains unclear whether ǝ=ƛiː is applicable only to weather (as in Jetté & Jones' examples) or also to objects. The Upper form ǝ=ƛiː can be either inherited (cf. the Koyukon cognate verb =ƛiː-ʔ 'to starve, starve to death, be very hungry' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 155]) or, more probably, borrowed from Lower Tanana ʔǝ=ƛi 'cold'.
Distinct from the substantive kʼǝ=qʼoƛ 'cold object, cold weather, cold air' (kʼǝ= is the indefinite possessive) and the verb =qʼoƛ / =qʼoːɬ 'to be intensely cold (of weather)' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 369, 370].
Degexit'an:=qʼʊtθ1
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1976: 43; Chapman 1914: 230. Verbal stem: 'to be cold'. Paradigm: =qʼʊtθ [stative imperf.] / =qʼǝð [transitional imperf.] / =qʼoːtθ [transitional perf.] / =qʼʊθ [transitional future]. Applicable to both objects and weather. Cf. attested examples: "it became frosty weather" [Chapman 1914: 125], "They dressed themselves in brown-bear skins, for it had grown cold" [Chapman 1914: 135], "it drew toward winter" [Chapman 1914: 163], "October (lit. the cold month)", "I want cold water" [Taff et al. 2007].
Distinct from the fossilized verbal form ǝ=ʐeː '(it is) cold', said of weather and atmosphere [Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 45; Kari 1976: 67; Chapman 1914: 210]. Cf. the examples: "It [weather] became cold" [Chapman 1914: 135], "In December it's really cold", "His ears are cold", "My fingers are cold", "It was cold early this morning", "When the mountain appears small from a distance, it's going to get colder", "October (lit. the month it gets cold)" [Taff et al. 2007]. Note the two synonymous descriptive expressions for October, based on =qʼǝð and ǝ=ʐeː respectively.
Distinct from =loːq 'to have cold' [Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1976: 33].
Sarsi:=V=kʼɒ́s1
Li 1930b: 22; Hoijer 1956: 223; Cook 1984: 173; Nanagusja 1996a: 129. Verbal stem: 'to be cold', applicable to both objects and weather. Paradigm: =V=kʼɒ́s [imperf.] / =V=kʼɒ̀ːz ~ =V=kʼɒ̀c- [perf.].
NUMBER:16
WORD:come
Hupa:=yaː1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 803; Golla 1996: 19; Golla 1970: 229 et passim. Same root as 'to go' q.v. The general meaning of the root is 'to move somewhere [intrans.]' [Golla 1970: 162, 301]. Used with sg. subj. The set =yaː-ʍ (*=yaː-ʍ-i) / =yaː is treated in [Golla 1977: 357] as directional imperfective/perfective, whereas =yaː / =ya-ʔ (< *=yaː-ʔ) is defined as nondirectional imperfective/perfective.
With pl. subj. the verb =tiɬ [light imperf.] / =til < *=tiɬ-i [heavy imperf.] / =teːƛʼ< *=teːɬ-ʔ-i [perf.] is used instead [Sapir & Golla 2001: 750; Golla 1996: 19, 40; Golla 1970: 162].
Mattole:=yaː1
Li 1930: 62 sub No. 44, 66 sub No. 3, 75. The light perfective stem; the heavy perfective stem is =ya-i; the imperfective stem is =yaː-x. Polysemy: 'to go (q.v.) / to come / to go away'. Used with sg. subj.
Distinct from =tiɬ [imperf.] / =teːʔl (< *=tel-ʔ-i) [perf.] with polysemy: 'to go / to come / to go away / to fly' [Li 1930: 65 sub No. 9, 88], used with pl. subj.
Bear River dialect: not attested reliably.
Kato:=ya1
Goddard 1912: 60. Paradigm: =ya-š [imperf.] / =ya ~ =ya-i ~ =ya-ʔ [perf.]. Polysemy: 'to go (q.v.) / to come / to go away'. Used with sg. subj.
Distinct from =tǝɬ [imperf.] / =telʔ (< *=tel-ʔ-i) [perf.] with polysemy: 'to go / to come / to go away' [Goddard 1912: 69], used with pl. subj. (cf. notes on 'to go').
Taldash Galice:=yaː1
Hoijer 1973: 69; Landar 1977: 294. Paradigm: =ya-š [imperf.] / =yaː [perf.]. Polysemy: 'to go / to come'. This is the generic verb 'to move (intrans.)', used with sg. subj.
See notes on 'to go' for other verbs for 'to move (intrans.)': =taɬ / =teʔɬ (dual. subj.), =kʰat / =kʰaʔ (pl. subj.).
Upper Inlet Tanaina:=yu1
Kari 2007: 234.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:=yu1
Kari 2007: 234; Boraas 2010: 24.
Inland Tanaina:=yu1
Kari 2007: 234; Wassillie 1979: 24; Tenenbaum 1978: 186.
Iliamna Tanaina:=yu1
Kari 2007: 234.
TFN_NOTES:
The verb =yu in the specific meaning 'to come' is explicitly documented only for Outer Inlet and Inland. In the dictionary [Kari 2007], =yu is quoted as the generic verb 'to go (sg. & dual. subj.)' for all dialects. We assume, however, that =yu is the Common Tanaina verb with polysemy: 'to go (q.v.) / to come', used with sg. & dual. subj., whereas =taɬ [imperf.] / =taƛʼ [perf.] is the Common Tanaina verb with polysemy: 'to go (q.v.) / to come', used with pl. subj.
Central Ahtena:=yaː1
Kari 1990: 422, 500.
Lower Ahtena: =yaː [Kari 1990: 422, 500].
Western Ahtena: =yaː [Kari 1990: 422, 500].
Mentasta Ahtena:=yaː1
Kari 1990: 422, 500.
AHT_NOTES:
Polysemy: 'to go / to come'; used with sg. & dual. subj.
Distinct from =teːɬ [imperf.] / =teːƛʼ [perf.] 'to go / to come / to fly', used with pl. subj. [Kari 1990: 144].
Dogrib:=ƛʰá2
Saxon & Siemens 1996: ix. Used with sg. & dual. subj. The verb =ƛʰá is only quoted in [Saxon & Siemens 1996] with the meaning 'to go' q.v., but actually the attested examples suggest that =ƛʰá possesses the standard Athapaskan polysemy: 'to go / to come': "You have come (=ƛʰá) here so soon!" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 49], "Because her husband came back (=ƛʰá), she rushed around" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 77], "He came back (=ƛʰá) here" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 85], "She came (=ƛʰá) to see me three times" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 92].
With pl subj., the verb =tè 'to go / to come' is used, cf. the example "Last week you people said you would come here" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 82].
Distinct from the verb =té, which is quoted in [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 153] as the basic equivalent for 'to come', but actually seems marginal in this meaning: =té is glossed as 'to be, get to be (situation), happen, occur, go, do, come' in [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 3].
North Slavey (Hare):=t=tʼĩ̀3
Rice 1978: 191, 468. There are two verbs found in available examples with the meaning 'to come':
1) =t=tʼĩ̀, polysemy: 'to go / to come', sg., dual., pl. subj.' [Rice 1978: 191, 468]. Cf. the examples: "We came for nothing", "In spring, people go to the bush" [Rice 1978: 191], "I wasn't pleased that he came in late" [Rice 1989: 303], "I don't know why he came" [Rice 1989: 1254].
2) suppletive =tà / =yà, polysemy: 'to go / to come', sg. subj., see notes on 'to go'. Cf. the examples: "s/he came here but s/he didn't stay long" [Rice 1989: 48], "s/he came after us" [Rice 1989: 296], "s/he comes customarily" [Rice 1989: 673], "I hope that he doesn't come" [Rice 1989: 1106].
We have to treat these two verbs as synonyms.
Tanacross:=hàːɬ1
Arnold et al. 2009: 133; Holton 2000: 214, 350. A generic verb of going with polysemy: 'to go / to come', used with sg. subj. Suppletive paradigm: =hàːɬ [imperf., fut.] / =š̬àh [perf.]. Historically, apparently =hàː-ɬ.
With pl subj., the verb =téɬ [imperf., fut.] / =tèːƛ [perf.] 'to go / to come / to run / to fly' is used [Arnold et al. 2009: 133; Holton 2000: 160, 214, 350].
For the meaning 'to come', cf. some examples: "I'm coming (=hàːɬ) from work" [Arnold et al. 2009: 297], "he came (=š̬àh) from far away" [Arnold et al. 2009: 115], "he came (=š̬àh) from his house" [Arnold et al. 2009: 127], "I came (=š̬àh) back from Tanacross" [Arnold et al. 2009: 274], "that's the way we came (=tèːŁ)" [Arnold et al. 2009: 97], "lots of people came (=tèːƛ) for the potlatch" [Arnold et al. 2009: 171].
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):=haːɬ1
Milanowski 2009: 43, 119. A generic verb of going with polysemy: 'to go / to come', used with sg. subj. Suppletive paradigm: =haːɬ [imperf., fut.] / =š̬ʸah [perf.] / =t=taː-k [customary].
With pl subj., the verb =teːɬ [imperf., perf.] / =ta-ɬ [fut.] / =t=ta-k [customary] 'to go / to come' is used [Milanowski 2009: 119].
Lower Tanana (Minto):=yʌ1
Kari 1994: 332, 412; Tuttle 2009: 87; Urschel 2006: 26. A generic verb of going with polysemy: 'to go / to come', used with sg. & dual. subj. Paradigm: =yʌ-y̥ [momentaneous/customary imperf.] / =yʌ [perf.] / =yʌ-ɬ [momentaneous progressive]. Further see notes on 'to go'.
Central Carrier:=ya1
Poser 1998/2013: 654, 1223, 1263; Poser 2011a: 57; Antoine et al. 1974: 302. A generic verb of going with polysemy: 'to go / to come', used with sg. subj. Paradigm: =ya [continuous imperf.] / =ya-ʔ [continuous perf.] / =yai-h [customary/momentaneous imperf.] / =ya-ɬ [progressive imperf.]. Further see notes on 'to go'.
Koyukon:=hoː1
Jetté & Jones 2000: 700, 878; Jones 1978: 41; Jones & Kwaraceius 1997: 109. A generic verb of going with polysemy: 'to go / to come', used with sg. subj. Suppletive paradigm: =hoː-y̥ [momentaneous imperf.] / =yoː [momentaneous perf.] / =hoː-ɬ [momentaneous fut.] / =yoː-ʔ [momentaneous opt.] / =hoː [continuative imperf.] / =yoː [continuative perf.] / =hoː-ɬ [continuative fut.] / =hoː-ɬ [continuative opt.]. Further see notes on 'to go'.
Degexit'an:=hoː-ʔ1
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1976: 2; Chapman 1914: 212. A generic verb of going with polysemy: 'to go / to come', used with sg. subj. Suppletive paradigm: =oː-y̥ [momentaneous imperf.] / =yoː [momentaneous perf.] / =hoː-ɬ [momentaneous fut.] / =yoː-ʔ [momentaneous opt.] / =hoː-ʔ [continuative imperf.] / =yoː [continuative perf.]. For further notes, see 'to go'.
Sarsi:=yá ~ =yáh1
Li 1930b: 16; Cook 1984: 56. A generic verb of going with polysemy: 'to go / to come', used with sg. subj. Paradigm: =yá(h) [imperf.] / =yā [perf.]. Cf. such examples as "When did you come?" [Cook 1984: 52], etc. Further see notes on 'to go'.
NUMBER:16
WORD:come
Hupa:
Mattole:
Kato:
Taldash Galice:
Upper Inlet Tanaina:
Outer Inlet Tanaina:
Inland Tanaina:
Iliamna Tanaina:
Central Ahtena:
Mentasta Ahtena:
Dogrib:
North Slavey (Hare):=tà1
Rice 1978: 311, 415, 505.
Tanacross:=š̬àh1
Perfective stem, sg. subj.
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):=š̬ʸah1
Perfective stem, sg. subj.
Lower Tanana (Minto):
Central Carrier:
Koyukon:=yoː1
Perfective stem, sg. subj.
Degexit'an:=yoː1
Perfective stem, sg. subj.
Sarsi:
NUMBER:16
WORD:come
Hupa:
Mattole:
Kato:
Taldash Galice:
Upper Inlet Tanaina:
Outer Inlet Tanaina:
Inland Tanaina:
Iliamna Tanaina:
Central Ahtena:
Mentasta Ahtena:
Dogrib:
North Slavey (Hare):=yà1
Perfective stem.
Tanacross:
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):
Lower Tanana (Minto):
Central Carrier:
Koyukon:
Degexit'an:
Sarsi:
NUMBER:17
WORD:die
Hupa:=tʼeːn1
Golla 1996: 25. According to the same source, the most common expression for 'to die (of human)' is the euphemistic tah-xoːʔ ʔaː-čʼi-ti-yaw 'in-some-way he-did-it' (=yaw < =yah-i), based on the suppletive verb =tʼiŋ (< *=tʼeːn) [light imperf.] / =tʼeːn (< *=tʼeːn-i) [heavy imperf.] / =yah [light perf.] / =yaw [heavy perf.] / =nih [light optative] / =niw [heavy optative] 'to do (so); to happen' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 791, 805; Golla 1996: 26, 43; Golla 1970: 286]. Textual evidence confirms this as the default expression, cf. such examples with perfective =yah / =yaw as: "She made an infusion for (her older sister) who was just about to die" [Sapir & Golla 2001: 309 No. 24], "That night he said, 'I've got a headache!' Before dawn, in the first light, he died" [Golla 1984: 53, 55], "They thought he had been dead for some time" [Golla 1984: 46, 49], "If I should talk the Indians would be no more. They would die" [Goddard 1904: 217, 219], "When they came to the village they were told that a man had died" [Goddard 1904: 175, 178].
Cf. examples for ‘to die’ with the imperfective stem (=tʼiŋ / =tʼeːn): "Despite this, he did not die" [Sapir & Golla 2001: 327 No. 6], "People would never have died but for that" [Goddard 1904: 221, 224], "He took care of the people who died" [Goddard 1904: 346, 349], "but if she does eat them, these eels of mine won't die" [Goddard 1904: 253, 261], "It (= the eels) won't die" [Goddard 1904: 256, 262]. It should be noted that, according to the two latter examples, the expression 'to do it in some way' is applied to animals as well. Cf. examples for ‘to die’ with the optative stem (=nih / =niw): "When someone dies, they bring a board into the house" [Sapir & Golla 2001: 188 No. 1], "When people would die" [Sapir & Golla 2001: 327 No. 2]
A second candidate is the verb =čʼit 'to die; to be tired out, weak from exhaustion' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 743; Golla 1996: 25, 97], which, in the meaning 'to die', is noted by Golla as "direct term; very impolite". In known examples =čʼit is applied preferably to animals, mythological monsters or the waning moon: "It is impossible for us to die" (the enemies of Little Woodpecker say) [Sapir & Golla 2001: 422 No. 146], "It (= the salmon) died at once" [Goddard 1904: 266, 268], "He (= the monster Two-Neck) did not die ... And then he died" [Goddard 1904: 164, 167], "He (= the monster) thought, 'For nothing I will die' ... At that resting place he died" [Goddard 1904: 346, 347, 349], "the waning moon (when its going from full to new)" [Golla 1996: 104]. Clear examples for =čʼit applied to a human being are: "Such a person doesn't die in a good way" [Sapir & Golla 2001: 176 No. 16], "He dies in a bad way" [Sapir & Golla 2001: 179 No. 14], "I fell like I’m going to die" (a woman says) [Sapir & Golla 2001: 223 No. 5-6], "His brother almost died (of fright)" [Goddard 1904: 328, 330].
A third candidate for 'to die' is the verb =čeh (heavy stem: =čeːw < *=čeh-i) 'to crowd, flock; to pile up', noted in [Golla 1996: 25] as "polite term".
The default Hupa expression for 'to die (of human)' is apparently the one with =tʼiŋ / =yah ('to do it in some way').
Mattole:=tiŋʔ3
Li 1930: 87. Originates from *=tinʔ; the heavy stem is =tiːʔn < *=tinʔ-i [Li 1930: 22]. Distinct from =laʔt 'to die' (said of a tree) [Li 1930: 119].
Bear River dialect: not attested.
Kato:=tǝn3
Goddard 1912: 70. Heavy stem, originating < *=tǝn-i.
Not attested reliably. Cf. =la-l, literally 'to be' used with sg. subj., and =tʼis 'to die, die off (pl. subj.)' in the example "One after another they are dying off (=tʼis) and all of Susitna is gone (=la-l)" [Lovick 2005: 192, ex. 5.25f].
Outer Inlet Tanaina:=ƛan5
Boraas 2010: 46. Attested in the example "He died suddenly".
Inland Tanaina:=qʰi=sil6
Wassillie 1979: 28, 45. Three Inland verbs for 'to die' are attested.
1) =qʰi=sil [Wassillie 1979: 28, 45]. This seems to be the most frequent expression used with human subject. Cf. the following examples: "I am gone (= dying)" [Tenenbaum 1976 1: 16], "the husband was gone (= died)" [Tenenbaum 1976 1: 17, 18], "his parents died" [Tenenbaum 1976 3: 68], "a person is dead" [Wassillie 1979: 28], vǝ=qʰi=sil-ǝn 'dead person', literally 'one who is gone' [Kari 2007: 73, 99].
2) =yuq [Wassillie 1979: 28, 45]. This seems to be the default expression used with animal subject. Cf. the examples: "dog died" [Wassillie 1979: 28], "chickadee died" [Tenenbaum 1976 1: 9], "raven died" [Tenenbaum 1976 2: 34], "seal died" [Tenenbaum 1976 2: 56].
3) =ƛan [Wassillie 1979: 28]. The only attested example is: "He died" [Wassillie 1979: 28].
Iliamna Tanaina:
Not attested.
TFN_NOTES:
Reconstruction of the basic Proto-Tanaina verb for 'to die' is not entirely clear, because all three attested verbs are metaphoric "polite" replacements. The stem =qʰi=sil is literally translated as 'to be gone' in the Tanaina sources, although the direct meaning of the root =sil is unclear (the prefix qʰi= expresses 'space/time/event/abstract entity' according to [Tenenbaum 1978: 67]). The verb =yuq actually means 'to happen', cf. [Kari 2007: 342]. Finally, =ƛan looks like a historical development from *=t=la-n, i.e., the verb =la (perf. =la-n) 'to be' [Wassillie 1979: 7] + the d-classifier; cf. the plain root =la- in the Upper Inlet example above.
Out of these them, =yuq could be the most archaic expression, since its causative stem =ɬ=yuq denotes 'to kill' q.v.
Western Ahtena: yeːʔ=tʰ=e=l=cʼet [Kari 1990: 408, 508].
Mentasta Ahtena:yeːʔ=tʰ=e=l=cʼet4
Kari 1990: 408, 508.
AHT_NOTES:
A number of expressions for 'to die' (mostly euphemistic) is listed in [Kari 1990: 408], but it remains unclear which one is the most neutral and frequently used (potential dialectal discrepancies are also untraceable).
Perhaps yeːʔ tʰ=e=l=cʼet 'to die, pass away' can be taken as a basic expression applicable to human beings (sg. subj. only?) [Kari 1990: 408, 508] ← the generic verb =l=cʼet 'animate or compact object moves independently' + the adverb yeːʔ tʰ= 'away' [Kari 1990: 433].
Distinct from the rare verb ta=...=cʰaː-n 'to die (sg. subj.)': "this word seems to be used only occasionally" [Kari 1990: 367, 508] (ta= is an unclear prefix, occurring only in some verbs for 'to die' [Kari 1990: 136]).
Distinct from ta=...=laːq 'to die (pl. subj.)' [Kari 1990: 269, 508] from the suppletive verb =yaːq / =laːq with the generic meaning 'to happen, affect' [Kari 1990: 426]. It should be noted that =yaːq can also be sporadically applied to sg. subj. with the meaning 'to die', lit. 'it happens to him' [Kari 1990: 427].
Dogrib:=wí7
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 32, 157. Used with sg. subj.
Distinct from =dé 'to die (pl. subj.)', quoted in [Saxon & Siemens n.d.] with the example "We are dying" (missing from [Saxon & Siemens 1996]).
The expressions for 'to kill' q.v. contain the same roots: =wí (sg. obj.) and =té (pl. obj.).
North Slavey (Hare):=wì7
Rice 1978: 294, 388, 478, 496; Hoijer 1956: 222. Paradigm: =wì [imperf.] / =wè [perf.], used with both sg. and pl. subj. [Rice 1989: 792].
Tanacross:=h=tʰẽː8
Arnold et al. 2009: 96; Shinen 1958: 34. Used with sg. subj.
With pl. subj., the verb =ɬ̬àːk 'to die' is used [Arnold et al. 2009: 96].
Both verbs are applicable to humans and animals, although it is noted in [Arnold et al. 2009] that these are rarely used for people due to taboo (i.e., impoliteness). It is likely that more common forms for 'to die' are various euphemistic expressions, but these are not documented.
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):=h=tʰĩː8
Milanowski 2009: 54, 95, 120. It is unclear whether =h=tʰĩː is applicable to sg. subj. only or to both sg. and pl. subj. Euphemistically derived from the verb =tʰĩː 'to sleep (sg. subj.)' q.v.
Lower Tanana (Minto):=nax9
Kari 1994: 197, 390; Tuttle 2009: 57. Examples are only avilable for sg. subj.
Distinct from =lʌx [imperf.] / =lʌk [perf.] 'to die', applicable to pl. subj. [Kari 1994: 190].
Central Carrier:ta=...=c̪ai10
Poser 1998/2013: 670, 1223, 1262; Poser 2011a: 67. Used with sg. & pl. subj. Paradigm: =c̪a-h [imperf.] / =c̪ai [perf.]. In [Antoine et al. 1974], erroneously transcribed as ta=...=cai, cf. "Many people died during the famine" [Antoine et al. 1974: 73], "he is dying (very near death)" [Antoine et al. 1974: 77], "He understands how a person feels when a relative dies" [Antoine et al. 1974: 222], etc.
Koyukon:=naːχ9
Jetté & Jones 2000: 708, 889; Jones 1978: 48. Literally 'it happens to subj' with the suppletive verb =naːχ [imperf., opt.] / =t=yoːχ [perf.] / =niː-ɬ [fut.] 'to occur, happen' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 708]. Probably this is the basic expression for 'to die', used with sg. human subj.
A second candidate is =l=ƛʰoː-χ [imperf.] / =l=ƛʰoː-n̥ [perf.] 'to die' (sg. subj.) [Jetté & Jones 2000: 582; Jones 1978: 48], but available examples show that it is more commonly applied to non-humans, i.e., to animals and plants.
Distinct from =naː [imperf.] / =noː-n̥ [perf.] 'to die', used with pl. subj. (both humans and non-humans) [Jetté & Jones 2000: 481].
Another equivalent for 'to die', applicable to pl. human subj. is the rare verb =loːχ [imperf.] / =loːq [perf.] with polysemy: 'to become unconscious / to fall asleep / to become paralyzed / to die' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 414].
Degexit'an:=naːχ9
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1976: 36; Chapman 1914: 214. Literally 'it happens to subj' with the suppletive verb =naːχ [imperf., opt.] / =tǝ=yoːq [perf.] / =neː-ɬ [fut.] 'to happen'. Used with both sg. and pl. subj. Cf. some examples: "So he died. His wife put him into the kayak, among fine skins" [Chapman 1914: 126], "He died suddenly", "Lots of them died from the sickness" [Taff et al. 2007].
The second candidate is =tθʰoː-χ / =tθʰoː-n-ʔ 'to die' [Kari 1976: 53; Chapman 1914: 220], but apparently this verb is applied specifically to animals, cf. the available examples: "the dried fish fell on him, and he [the mythical Mouse] died" [Chapman 1914: 206], "dead [of animal] (lit. it's dead)" [Taff et al. 2007].
Sapir & Golla 2001: 763, 766; Golla 1996: 27; Golla 1964: 117. Polysemy: 'pet animal / dog / horse'. Another designation of 'dog' is the descriptive term noː=kʼʸi=neː=yoːt, literally 'it barks at something' [Golla 1996: 9, 27] from the verb =yoːt (the variant =yoh < =yot#) 'to bark' [Golla 1996: 9]. Golla [Golla 1996: 27] quotes ɬiŋʔ and noː-kʼʸi-neː=yoːt as synonyms in the meaning 'dog', but browsing through Hupa texts in [Goddard 1904; Sapir & Golla 2001; Golla 1984] clearly suggests that ɬiŋʔ is the default designation for 'dog'. Examples for ɬiŋʔ 'dog' are numerous in [Goddard 1904] and [Sapir & Golla 2001] (e.g., "I wish I had a dog to go along with me" [Goddard 1904: 114, 131], "A dog skin blanket was hanging there over the door" [Goddard 1904: 170, 173], "Dogs are not allowed to eat his left-overs" [Sapir & Golla 2001: 191 No. 30]), Golla's examples are: "Don't even let a dog look from there!" [Golla 1984: 32, 34], "dogs never come here" [Golla 1970: 301]. By contrast, no textual examples for noː=kʼʸi=neː=yoːt have been found.
Mattole:naːƛʼˈiː2
Li 1930: 128.
Bear River dialect: naɬʔi ~ neɬʔi with polysemy: 'dog / horse' [Goddard 1929: 306, 315].
Kato:possr=loː3
Goddard 1912: 23. Browsing through [Goddard 1909] suggests that possr=loː or possr=loː-c (with the diminutive suffix [Goddard 1912: 27]) are the default expressions for 'dog', although there is also an alternative form naɬkiː ~ naɬʔkiː 'dog' [Goddard 1912: 31, 90, 118]. The latter is morphologically unclear, cf. Mattole naːƛʼiː 'dog'. In [Curtis 1924: 202] and [Essene 1942: 86], however, 'dog' is quoted as nati.
Distinct from the word for 'horse': ɬin-čʰo [Curtis 1924: 202], literally 'big pet' with the augmentative suffix -čʰoː [Goddard 1912: 26].
Taldash Galice:ɬĩʔ1
Hoijer 1973: 61; Landar 1977: 294. The possessed form is possr=lĩː-čʼ-eʔ with the old suffix -čʼ. Cf. the term for 'horse': ɬĩʔ-čʰoh [Hoijer 1973: 61], literally 'big dog' (historically 'big pet') with the augmentative suffix -čʰoh, for which see notes on 'big'.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:ɬi-kʼa1
Kari 2007: 11, 241, 349; Kari 1977: 30.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:ɬi-kʼa1
Kari 2007: 11, 241, 349; Kari 1977: 30.
Inland Tanaina:ɬi-kʼa1
Kari 2007: 11, 241, 349; Kari 1977: 30; Wassillie 1979: 29.
Iliamna Tanaina:ɬi-kʼa1
Kari 2007: 11, 241, 349; Kari 1977: 30.
TFN_NOTES:
The possessed form is possr=li-kʼa (all dialects).
The synchronic status of the element -kʼa is unclear, but it appears to be detachable, cf. ɬi-čʼa 'bitch' (all dialects), ɬi-nǝstʼa 'male dog' (all dialects), and especially plain ɬi in the Upper Inlet expression ɬi ʁǝli 'hunting dog', literally 'real dog' [Kari 2007: 11].
Words for ‘horse’ are borrowed: Upper Inlet kuyni, Outer Inlet, Inland, Iliamna kuni [Kari 2007: 11] < Russian konʸ ‘horse, steed’.
Central Ahtena:ɬi-kʼʸeː1
Kari 1990: 280, 510; Kari & Buck 1975: 8; Smelcer 2010: 66.
Western Ahtena: ɬi-kʼʸeː [Kari 1990: 280, 510; Kari & Buck 1975: 8; Smelcer 2010: 66].
Mentasta Ahtena:ɬi-kʼʸeː1
Kari 1990: 280, 510; Kari & Buck 1975: 8; Smelcer 2010: 66.
AHT_NOTES:
The synchronic status of the element -kʼʸeː is unclear, but it appears to be detachable, cf. the plural form ɬi-ʔqʰeːy 'dogs', the incorporated morpheme ɬi= 'dog' and various substantives like ɬi-cʼeː (Mentasta: ɬi-cʼeʔe) 'bitch', ɬi-kʰʸiːɬ 'male dog', etc. [Kari 1990: 280; Smelcer 2010: 66].
Words for ‘horse’ are borrowed: Lower kʸaːnʔ, Central kʸon, Western kʸuːni, Central, Western, Mentasta χoːs [Kari 1990: 179, 186, 220] < Russian konʸ ‘horse, steed’, English hɔːs ‘horse’.
Dogrib:ƛʰĩ́ ~ possr=ɬĩ̀ː1
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 100, 158. The initial affricate ƛʰ- in the non-possessed form is strange, although paralleled by some other Athapaskan languages.
Rice 1978: 77, 133; Hoijer 1956: 222. In [Hoijer 1956], we find the 19th c. archaic variant ƛʰĩ (before the spirantization). Possessed form: possr=lĩ̀-éʔ (< *=lĩ-q-eʔ)
Cf. lĩ̀-šò 'horse' [Rice 1978: 78] , literally 'big dog' with the augmentative suffix -šò.
Tanacross:ɬìː1
Arnold et al. 2009: 100; Holton 2000: 342; Brean & Milanowski 1979: 1; McRoy 1973: 1. The specific suffixed stem is used in the possessed form: possr=ɬ̬ǐː-g-ʔ. The plural form is modified with the plural suffix: ɬìː-ʔìn 'dogs' [Arnold et al. 2009: 100; Holton 2000: 157].
In [Shinen 1958: 12], the word for 'dog' is transcribed as ƛʰi.
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):ɬiː1
Milanowski 2009: 20, 67. The possessed form is not documented.
Kari 1994: 181, 392; Tuttle 2009: 58. Possessed: possr=li-k-aʔ; the non-possessed form ɬi-k-a was leveled by analogy with the possessed one. In compounds, the suffixless root ɬi- is retained: ɬi-cʼaʔa 'bitch, female dog', ɬi-kʌya 'puppy', etc.
Central Carrier:ɬi1
Poser 1998/2013: 256, 673; Poser 2011a: 70. Possessed: possr=lʌ-k. Plural: ɬi-kʰe. Polysemy: 'dog / horse' in the recent past.
Koyukon:ɬiː-k1
Jetté & Jones 2000: 388, 893; Jones 1978: 50. Polysemy: 'dog / tame animal, pet'. Possessed: possr=liː-k-ǝʔ; the non-possessed form ɬiː-k was leveled by analogy with the possessed one. Plural: ɬiː-qʰaːʔ 'dogs / pets'. In compounds, the suffixless root ɬiː- is retained: ɬiː-cʼaːʔǝ 'bitch, female dog', etc. [Jetté & Jones 2000: 389].
Degexit'an:ɬeː-k1
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 5; Chapman 1914: 218. In compounds, the suffixless root ɬeː- is retained: ɬeː-ʼaːʔ 'bitch', ɬeː-qoːy 'puppy' etc. [Kari 1978: 5].
Sarsi:ƛʰī1
Hoijer & Joël 1963: 68, 70; Hoijer 1956: 222; Cook 1984: 65. Paradigm: ƛʰī ~ ƛʰí~ ƛʰí-čʼá [sg.] / possr=ƛʰíh-ɒ̀ʔ [sg.] / ƛʰí-kʰá ~ ƛʰí-čʼá-kʰá [pl.] / possr=lí-kʰá ~ possr=ƛʰí-kʰúw-ɒ̀ʔ [pl.]. In [Goddard 1915: 248], the pl. form possr=lí-čʼá-kʰá 'dogs' can also be found. Note the distribution ƛʰ- / -l- retained in Cook's and Goddard's data, leveled in favor of ƛʰ in Hoijer & Joël's glossary.
Suffixed stem ƛʰí-čʼá with polysemy: 'dog / horse'.
NUMBER:19
WORD:drink
Hupa:=naːn1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 774; Golla 1996: 29; Golla 1996a: 388; Golla 1970: 147. The imperfective root variants are =naŋ < *=naːn [light] / =naːn < *=naːn-i [heavy], the perfective root variants are =naŋʔ < *=naːn-ʔ [light] / =naʔn < *=naːn-ʔ-i [heavy]. In [Golla 1996], also the reduced light imperfective variant =nuŋ is quoted.
Mattole:=naːn1
Li 1930: 94. This is the heavy imperfective stem, originating from *=naːn-i; the light imperfective stem is =naːh < *=naːn [Li 1930: 21]; the perfective stem is =naːʔn < *=naːn-ʔ-i. Distinct from =xix, glossed as 'to drink (to sip?)' in [Li 1930: 80].
Bear River dialect: not attested.
Kato:=nan1
Goddard 1912: 65. This is the heavy stem, originating from *=nan-i; the light stem is =naŋ < *=nan.
Kari 2007: 278, 349; Wassillie 1979: 31; Holton et al. 2004: 22.
Iliamna Tanaina:=t=nun1
Kari 2007: 278, 349.
TFN_NOTES:
Distinct from the specific verb =žǝž (all dialects; =yǝy in Upper Inlet) 'to sip, drink (a hot drink)' [Kari 2007: 278].
Central Ahtena:=tʰ=naːn1
Kari 1990: 289, 511.
Lower Ahtena: =tʰ=naːn [Kari 1990: 289, 511].
Western Ahtena: =tʰ=naːn [Kari 1990: 289, 511].
Mentasta Ahtena:=tʰ=nãː1
Kari 1990: 289, 511.
AHT_NOTES:
Paradigm: =naːn [imperf.] / =naːn-ʔ [perf.], see the additional forms in [Kari 1990: 681].
Dogrib:=tṍ1
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 124, 159.
Distinct from =cʼè 'to drink, sip' [Saxon & Siemens n.d.].
North Slavey (Hare):=tõ̀1
Rice 1978: 422, 497; Hoijer 1956: 222. Originally from *=t=nõ. Polysemy: 'to drink / to overeat'. This is the basic verb for 'to drink' as confirmed by such examples as: "I don't like him to drink", "Drink the tea", "Did you really drink four cups?", "He drank too much" [Rice 1978: 364], "They're not letting me drink water" [Rice 1978: 192], "Do you want to drink tea?" [Rice 1978: 370], "Drink up the juice" [Rice 1978: 386], "I overate" [Rice 1978: 202].
Distinct from =h=tsʼè, which is also glossed as 'to drink' in [Rice 1978: 472, 497], but available examples show that it is normally applicable to tea and nothing else, thus the underlying meaning of =h=tsʼè should be rather 'to sip': "Who drank up my tea?" [Rice 1978: 387], "Do you drink tea?" [Rice 1978: 373], "Who drank up my tea?" [Rice 1978: 387].
Tanacross:=t=nãː1
Arnold et al. 2009: 102; Holton 2000: 175, 349; Shinen 1958: 35. Paradigm: =t=nãː [imperf.] / =t=nã́-ʔ [perf.]. In [Holton 2000: 349], quoted as =t=nàː - a typo.
Jetté & Jones 2000: 492, 894; Jones 1978: 51. Paradigm: =nuːn̥ [durative imperf.] / =nuː-y̥ [momentaneous imperf.] / =nuːn-ʔ [perf.].
Distinct from =zǝs 'to sip, drink (hot liquid, alcoholic beverage)' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 737].
Degexit'an:=neːn̥1
Kari 1976: 37; Chapman 1914: 214. Paradigm: =neːn̥ [imperf.] / =neːn-ʔ [perf.] / =neː-ɬ [fut.] / =neː-y̥ [opt.]. In [Taff et al. 2007] it is specified as 'to drink, gulping smth. cold', but browsing through Chapman's text examples suggests that =neːn̥ is retained as the basic verb for 'to drink': "'I will drink some water', said she; and when she drank, she swallowed the spruce-needle" [Chapman 1914: 112], "and asked her for some water. 'There is some', said she, 'out there on the floor. Drink!'" [Chapman 1914: 169], "So he drank the water; and she gave him some food, and he ate it" [Chapman 1914: 169], "Three days he spent there without anything to eat or drink" [Chapman 1914: 178], "Then she reached down a little bowl with some water in it. 'Here', said she, "drink this!" [Chapman 1914: 179].
It is interesting that in the modern language as described in [Taff et al. 2007], the default verb for drinking is =ʐeːʂ [imperf.] / =ʐǝʂ [perf.] which means both 'to drink' and 'to sip' (in [Kari 1976: 68], only its original meaning 'to sip' is quoted). Cf. the examples for =ʐeːʂ 'to drink' from [Taff et al. 2007]: "I drank tea in a cup", "She's drinking tea", "When he was drunk he drowned", "drink, soda pop (lit. what they drink)'.
Sarsi:=tɒ́n-1
Li 1930b: 18; Hoijer 1956: 222. Paradigm: =tɒ́ ~ =tɒ́n- [imperf., perf.], historically < *=t=nɒ́n. In [Hoijer 1956], however, quoted simply as =nɒ́(n-).
NUMBER:20
WORD:dry
Hupa:=cʰaːy1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 735; Golla 1996: 29; Golla 1970: 137, 177 et passim. The light imperfective stem =cʰaːy < *=cʰaːy-i; the perfective stem is =cʰay-ʔ < *=cʰaːy-ʔ with the causative meaning 'to dry (trans.)'. Verbal root 'to be dry'. Widely applicable: stuff (e.g., clothes, wood), food (e.g., salmon), snow.
Mattole:=cʰai1
Li 1930: 107. Intransitive verb 'to be dry'. The transitive counterpart is =cʰai-ʔ 'to dry smth' [Li 1930: 108], which coincides with the optative stem =cʰai-ʔ of the intransitive verb.
Bear River dialect: only the transitive verb =sai(ʔ) 'to dry (smth)' is documented [Goddard 1929: 315].
Kato:=cʰai ~ =sai1
Goddard 1912: 73. Verbal root with polysemy: 'to be dry / to dry (trans.)'.
Taldash Galice:=cai1
Hoijer 1973: 70. Verbal root with polysemy: 'to be dry / to dry (trans.) / to be bony, emaciated'.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:=qǝn2
Kari 2007: 63 sub dry wood, 151 sub drought (dry time or area), 282 sub dried meat, 285 sub dry fish bellies; Kari 1977: 78 sub dry wood.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:=qǝn2
Kari 2007: xxvii, 63 sub dry wood, 151 sub drought (dry time or area), 282 sub dried meat; Kari 1977: 78 sub dry wood.
Inland Tanaina:=qǝn2
Kari 2007: xxvii, 61 sub dry branches, 63 sub dry wood, 135 sub snowdrift (dry snow), 151 sub drought (dry time or area), 282 sub dried meat, 285 sub dry fish bellies; Kari 1977: 78 sub dry wood; Wassillie 1979: 31.
A second documented Inland verb for 'to be dry, dried out' is =čʼiš [imperf.] / =čʼičʼ [perf.], attested in the examples "It is dried out" [Wassillie 1979: 31], "he threw out some dried caribou flank meat to him: 'This dried up stuff is the only kind there is in here'" [Tenenbaum 1976 1: 38], "Your tail will dry up" [Tenenbaum 1976 2: 46], "Raven cut off his dried-up foot" [Tenenbaum 1976 2: 49]. The difference between the two verbs is unclear; we treat both as synonyms.
Iliamna Tanaina:=qǝn2
Kari 2007: xxvii; Kari 1977: 78 sub dry wood.
TFN_NOTES:
The verbal root =qǝn 'to be dry' can be safely posited as the Proto-Tanaina term for this basic meaning. However, the second verb =čʼiš seems to be Common Tanaina as well, not just Inland, cf. [Kari 2007: 2 sub brown bear that shed its hair, 134 sub snow on top of surface crust].
Central Ahtena:=qan2
Kari 1990: 191, 512.
Lower Ahtena: =qan [Kari 1990: 191, 512].
Western Ahtena: =qan [Kari 1990: 191, 512].
Mentasta Ahtena:=qan2
Kari 1990: 191, 512.
AHT_NOTES:
Verbal root: 'to be dry'. Also functions as the noun-like adjective qan 'dry'.
Dogrib:=kṍ2
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 26, 117, 127, 160.
There are three Dogrib verbs with the meaning 'to be dry':
1) =kṍ [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 26, 117, 127, 160] with polysemy: 'to be dry / to dry (trans.) / to be skinny'. The attested examples are: "The clothes are drying on the line", "My mouth is dry" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 26], "Everybody wants to dry a lot of fish for dryfish" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 28], 'dry wood' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 104], "It is protected from drying out" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 109], "She protects it from drying out" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 127].
2) =žà / =šà [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 18, 160] with polysemy: 'to be dry / to dry (trans.)'. The found examples are: "The clothes are going to get dry", "powdered (= dry) milk" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 18].
3) =čà, glossed as 'to be dried' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 73, 159]. This one is apparently a morphological variant of =žà.
We treat =kṍ and =žà as synonyms.
North Slavey (Hare):=fà1
Rice 1978: 426, 498.
There are two Hare verbs with the meaning 'to dry (intrans.)' (with the h-classifier 'to dry (trans.)'): =fà (< *cʰV) and =kõ̀. Both are widely used and the semantic difference between them is unclear. We have to treat them as synonyms, although the verb =kõ̀ tends to be applicable specifically to meat and fish and thus could be ruled out in future.
Cf. the found examples for intrans. =fà and trans. =h=fà: "The clothes are dry" [Rice 1978: 259], "The clothes dried on the line", "It dried from exposure to the weather" [Rice 1978: 306], "The field dried up" [Rice 1978: 338], "it is dry" [Rice 1989: 456], "I dried the clothes" [Rice 1978: 313], "The creeks are all dried up" [Rice 1978: 391].
Cf. the found examples for intrans. =kõ̀ and trans. =h=kõ̀: "'the string is dry" [Rice 1989: 245], "The fish are drying" [Rice 1978: 219], "My skin is dry", "The fish is dry" [Rice 1978: 256], "The fish are drying" [Rice 1978: 390], "The meat is dried" [Rice 1989: 454], "Dry the meat" [Rice 1978: 365].
Tanacross:n=è=l=kẽy̥2
Arnold et al. 2009: 104; Holton 2000: 349; Shinen 1958: 20.
There are several documented terms for '(to be) dry'. Two of them we prefer to treat as synonyms.
1) The verb =h=kẽy̥ 'to dry (trans.)' / =l=kẽy̥ 'to be dry', which is quoted as the main term for 'dry' in [Arnold et al. 2009: 104; Holton 2000: 349; Shinen 1958: 20]. The adjectival meaning can be expressed either as one of the forms n=è=l=kẽy̥ or t=è=kẽy̥ '(it is) dry' (with the adjectival/gender exponents n= or t= [Holton 2000: 237 ff.]) or as the noun-like adjective kẽy̥. The found examples, however, are not very illustrative: "the woman is drying (=kẽy̥) fish" [Arnold et al. 2009: 104], "dry (kẽy̥) meat" [Arnold et al. 2009: 172], "he is skinny (lit. dry, n=è=l=kẽy̥) because he was sick" [Arnold et al. 2009: 236], "my chin is dry (=kẽy̥) (i.e.: I am thirsty)" [Arnold et al. 2009: 268].
2) The verbal form t=éː=š̬àːk '(it is) dry' [Arnold et al. 2009: 104] with the adjectival/gender exponent t= [Holton 2000: 237 ff.]. Cf. the examples in [Arnold et al. 2009: 104]: "the ground is completely dry", "the moss is really dry", "dried out leaves (in autumn)".
Distinct from a more specific verb =l=tθʰày̥ 'to be drying', applied to clothes, tents, etc. [Arnold et al. 2009: 104].
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):kãy̥2
Milanowski 2009: 73. Glossed with polysemy: 'dry / withered / thin'. Apparently this noun-like adjective is the basic expression for 'dry' in Tetlin. Cf. the cognate verb =h=kãy̥ 'to dry (intrans., trans.), air-dry smth.' with the examples "The cups are drying", "She is drying fish" [Milanowski 2009: 95].
A second candidate is the noun-like adjective tθʰay, attested in the example "spruce firewood which is mostly dry" [Milanowski 2009: 27, 86] and the verb =l=tθʰay̥ 'to make dry' [Milanowski 2009: 95, 100].
Northway: kãy̥, glossed with polysemy: 'dry / withered / thin' and the cognate verb =h=kay̥ in the transitive example "Someone is drying dishes" [Milanowski 2007: 7].
Scottie Creek: kãy̥, eː=kãy, t=eː=kãy 'dry', attested in the examples "I am eating dry meat" [John 1997: 42], "dry ground" [John 1997: 42], "dry firewood" [John 1997: 58], "dry branch" [John 1997: 60].
Lower Tanana (Minto):=kʊn̥2
Kari 1994: 116, 394; Tuttle 2009: 63. Verb 'to be dry'. Paradigm: =kʊn̥ [imperf.] / =kʌ-y̥ [customary]. Also functions as the noun-like adjective kʊn̥ 'dry'. Cf. Kari's examples: "dry wood", "dry fish", "dry meat", "dry surface", "cube sugar".
Central Carrier:=ki2
Poser 1998/2013: 684, 1220, 1252; Poser 2011a: 74; Antoine et al. 1974: 306. Verbal stem: 'to be dry'.
Koyukon:=qun̥2
Jetté & Jones 2000: 218, 895; Jones 1978: 52. Verbal stem: 'to be dry'. Paradigm: =qun̥ [neuter imperf.] / =qoː-y̥ [customary imperf.]. Widely applicable, cf. some examples: "The clothes dried", "The king salmon is dry", "place is dry".
Degexit'an:=qǝŋ̥2
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1976: 21. Verbal stem: 'to be dry / to dry (trans.)'. Also functions as the noun-like adjective qǝŋ̥ 'dry, dried'. Cf. the examples from [Taff et al. 2007]: "It dried", "My hands are dry (lit. the skin on my hands is dry)", "He's chewing dried meat", "I went for dry wood", "dried apples or other dried fruit (lit. dried ears)".
The second candidate is the verb =ʰǝ, glossed as 'to be dry' in [Kari 1976: 58], but not found in other sources.
Sarsi:=kɒ̀ːn2
Li 1930b: 21; Cook 1984: 159. Verbal stem: 'to be dry'. Cf. Cook's example: "It (wood) is dry".
NUMBER:20
WORD:dry
Hupa:
Mattole:
Kato:
Taldash Galice:
Upper Inlet Tanaina:
Outer Inlet Tanaina:
Inland Tanaina:=čʼiš3
Wassillie 1979: 31.
Iliamna Tanaina:
Central Ahtena:
Mentasta Ahtena:
Dogrib:=žà4
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 18, 160. The variant =šà is attested after the suffixal =h=; innovative pronunciation: =zà / =sà.
Li 1930: 132. Surprisingly, specified by Li as 'ear (ear interior)', but no other words for 'ear' are documented in [Li 1930], thus it is likely that possr=čiɣ-eʔ is actually a generic term.
Bear River dialect: possr=čug-eʔ ~ possr=čʰig-e 'ear' [Goddard 1929: 315].
Hoijer 1973: 58; Hoijer 1956: 223; Landar 1977: 294. In [Landar 1977], transcribed as sʸaːi.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:possr=ci-l-ʔu2
Kari 2007: 89, 349; Kari 1977: 98. Literally 'extending to his hearing' or 'extending his inner ear' with the classificatory verb =ʔu 'to handle a single compact object' [Tenenbaum 1978: 132, 135; Holton et al. 2004: 40; Boraas 2010: 65, 118]. The Upper Inlet incorporated element ci historically means 'inner ear, hearing' (cf. the cognate Degexit'an, Koyukon, Tanacross etc. forms for 'inner ear, hearing'). This is also attested in the synchronic Tanaina expressions for 'inner ear, hearing': Outer Inlet, Inland possr=či-yiqʼ, Upper Inlet possr=ci-qʼ-e [Kari 2007: 89], where -(yi)qʼ is the postposition 'inside, into' (cf. Outer Inlet -(y)iqʼ 'inside, into' [Boraas 2010: 27, 35]).
Outer Inlet Tanaina:possr=čǝʁ-ʔa1
Kari 2007: 89, 349; Kari 1977: 98.
Inland Tanaina:possr=čǝʁ-a1
Kari 2007: 89, 349; Kari 1977: 98; Wassillie 1979: 32.
Iliamna Tanaina:possr=čǝʁ-ʔa1
Kari 2007: 89, 349; Kari 1977: 98.
TFN_NOTES:
The Upper Inlet form is clearly innovative.
Central Ahtena:possr=caʁ-eʔ1
Kari 1990: 167, 513; Kari & Buck 1975: 62; Smelcer 2010: 45.
Western Ahtena: possr=caʁ-eʔ [Kari 1990: 167, 513; Kari & Buck 1975: 62; Smelcer 2010: 45].
Mentasta Ahtena:possr=caʁ-aʔ1
Kari 1990: 167, 513; Kari & Buck 1975: 62; Smelcer 2010: 45.
AHT_NOTES:
Distinct from possr=ciː 'hearing, inner ear' [Kari 1990: 167]. The latter form is explained by Kari as a sporadic contraction of caʁ 'ear' + the postposition -yiː 'inside', but such an analysis seems unnecessary.
Dogrib:possr=cèː-mpàː1
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 40, 160. Glossed as 'outer ear, ear'. Literally 'edge of cèː' with cèː *'ear' and possr=mpàː 'edge, seam' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 107]. Cf. mpàː in other compounds like, e.g., tĩ́lí-mpàː 'roadside' ← tĩli 'road' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 97], cʼí-mpàː 'sails' ← cʼí 'boat' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 106].
Distinct from possr=сìː, glossed as 'ear, hearing' in [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 40, 160]; apparently the meaning 'inner ear, hearing' is implied.
North Slavey (Hare):possr=cí-ʔ2
Rice 1978: 52, 135; Hoijer 1956: 222. The old term =ce- ~ =ca- 'ear' is retained in the compounds cè-lù 'earrings', possr=cà-pár-éʔ ~ possr=cè-pár-éʔ 'earlobe' [Rice 1978: 52]; final -lù is the attributive 'round', a suffixless cognate to the verb =lùl-è 'to be round 3D' q.v. (see [Rice 1989: 244] for South Slavey -lú 'round'); final =par-e is the attributive 'rounded, curved' [Rice 1978: 257, 531].
Tanacross:possr=cǎːɣ-ʔ1
Arnold et al. 2009: 106; Holton 2000: 342; Brean & Milanowski 1979: 23; McRoy 1973: 8.
Distinct from possr=cìː 'inner ear, hearing' [Arnold et al. 2009: 106; Holton 2000: 344].
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):possr=caɣ-ŋʔ1
Milanowski 2009: 13, 69. Final -ŋʔ is the izafet exponent (...ɣŋʔ < *...k-ǝʔ).
Poser 1998/2013: 153, 688; Poser 2011a: 76; Antoine et al. 1974: 22, 306.
Distinct from possr=ceh 'ear as organ of hearing' [Poser 1998/2013: 151, 688].
Koyukon:possr=cǝʁ-ǝʔ1
Jetté & Jones 2000: 169, 896; Jones 1978: 54.
Distinct from possr=cǝ-y ~ possr=ciː-y ~ possr=cǝ-yǝt~ possr=ciː-yǝt 'inner ear, hearing' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 170; Jones 1978: 54]. Final -y ~ -yǝt is the fossilized postposition -yiː ~ -yiːt 'in, inside' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 680].
Degexit'an:possr=caːʁ ~ possr=cǝʁ1
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 33. The variant possr=cǝʁ is from [Kari 1978].
Distinct from possr=ceː 'inner ear' [Taff et al. 2007], possr=ceː-t 'hearing' [Kari 1978: 33].
Sarsi:possr=cíɣ-ɒ̀ʔ1
Hoijer & Joël 1963: 71; Hoijer 1956: 222.
NUMBER:22
WORD:earth
Hupa:ninʔ ~ neʔn1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 778; Golla 1996: 30. Polysemy: 'dirt / earth / ground'. Originates from *ninʔV. Cf. also ninisʼaːn with polysemy 'country, land / world, surface of the earth / mountain' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 778; Golla 1996: 30], probably < *ninʔ-sa-ʔaːn 'ground-lies', according to Golla.
Mattole:
Not documented. The old root ninʔ 'earth' is, however, attested in ne=ʔ=noː=nˈiŋ-kix 'earthquake', formed with the verb =kix 'to shake (intrans.)' [Li 1930: 99].
Bear River dialect: not attested.
Kato:neʔ1
Goddard 1912: 20; Curtis 1924: 205. Polysemy: 'soil / land / world'. For the meaning 'soil' cf. examples like "He poured into it [into the canoe] a quantity of soil that they might have a fire in the canoe" [Goddard 1909: 125 No. 13].
Hoijer 1973: 55; Hoijer 1956: 223. Glossed as 'earth, land, country'. The second element -teː is not entirely clear.
Cf. the cognate noun nanʔ-sʼãː 'world, cosmos' [Hoijer 1973: 55], which is an exact match for Hupa ninisʼaːn 'world' (see notes on Hupa 'earth').
Upper Inlet Tanaina:ɬac2
Kari 2007: 144, 358; Kari 1977: 122.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:ɬač2
Kari 2007: 144, 358; Kari 1977: 122.
Inland Tanaina:ɬač2
Kari 2007: 144, 358; Kari 1977: 122.
Iliamna Tanaina:ɬač2
Kari 2007: 144, 358; Kari 1977: 122.
TFN_NOTES:
Polysemy: 'soil, earth / dirt / fine soil, loess / ashes' in all the dialects.
Distinct from ǝɬ=nǝn (Upper Inlet, Outer Inlet, Inland, Seldovia; simplified ǝɬ=ǝn in Iliamna) 'land, earth, ground' [Kari 2007: 136]; the main lexical root is nǝn, attested in various compounds, although initial ǝɬ- is not entirely clear.
Central Ahtena:ɬeːc2
Kari 1990: 275.
Lower Ahtena: ɬeːc [Kari 1990: 275].
Western Ahtena: ɬeːc [Kari 1990: 275].
Mentasta Ahtena:ɬeːc2
Kari 1990: 275.
AHT_NOTES:
An unclear situation, since there are no separate entries 'earth, soil' in the available dictionaries. The noun ɬeːc is documented with the polysemy: 'dirt / dust / gravel / ashes' [Kari 1990: 275], but sporadic examples like "hand me some soil (ɬeːc)!" (the dialectal origin is not documented) [Kari 1990: 363] point out that ɬeːc can also denote 'soil'.
Distinct from nenʔ (all dialects; Mentasta ninʔ) with polysemy: 'earth, ground / land, country' [Kari 1990: 301, 513; Kari & Buck 1975: 81].
Dogrib:ntè1
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 86, 161. Innovative pronunciation: tè. Polysemy: 'ground / land / earth / dirt'. For the meaning 'earth', cf. the collocations tèː-čʰĩ̀ː 'wooden cache insulated with earth' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 18], tèː-tʰõ̀ː 'wooden cache insulated with earth or moss' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 18].
Distinct from nèkʼé, which is attested in two collocations: tíː nèkʼé 'world, earth' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 19], literally 'this nèkʼé' with demonstrative tíː 'this' q.v.; hážõ̀ː nèkʼé 'world, earth' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 50], literally 'all nèkʼé' with demonstrative hážõ̀ː 'all' q.v.
North Slavey (Hare):nè1
Rice 1978: 82; Hoijer 1956: 222. The possessed from is =nén-éʔ. Polysemy: 'earth (soil) / land / ground / back (anatomic)'. In [Rice 1978], glossed only as 'land, ground'. Cf. the collocation tèrì nénéʔ 'world, earth' [Rice 1978: 47, 135], literally 'this earth'.
Tanacross:nénʔ1
Arnold et al. 2009: 97, 160, 321; Shinen 1958: 12. Polysemy: 'soil / dirt / ground / land, country'.
Cf. the collocation nǝnʔ-kʰʌkǝt 'the world, the earth' [Kari 1994: 205] with the postposition obj=kʰʌkǝt 'on, upon the surface of obj.' [Kari 1994: 155].
Central Carrier:yʌn1
Poser 1998/2013: 579; Antoine et al. 1974: 283. Polysemy: 'earth, soil / ground / floor'. Cf. some examples: "the soil here is sandy" [Poser 1998/2013: 882], "He is digging up the ground for a garden" [Poser 1998/2013: 579].
Koyukon:nǝnʔ1
Jetté & Jones 2000: 474, 897. Polysemy: 'earth, soil / land, country / ground'.
Degexit'an:ɬaːc2
Taff et al. 2007. Polysemy: 'earth, soil / mud'. Cf. the found examples: "Dig a hole and cover it up with earth" [Taff et al. 2007], "Now, the mess of salmon tails and fins that they had cooked was full of dirt and earth" [Chapman 1914: 175].
Distinct from ŋaːnʔ 'land / world / ground' [Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 42; Chapman 1914: 216], the variant ŋǝnʔ is used in incorporation.
Sarsi:kù=ƛʼìs3
Hoijer & Joël 1963: 74. Initial ku= is the fossilized indefinite personal possessive [Hoijer & Joël 1963: 66], literally 'somebody's ƛʼis'. Glossed simply as 'earth' by Hoijer & Joël, but apparently with polysemy: 'earth, soil / dirt, mud'. The example for the meaning 'earth, soil' is contained in [Sapir 1923], the tale "Lodge-Boy and Thrown-Away": "He spread earth all around inside the tent". In the creation myth quoted in [Nanagusja 1996b: 153-154], however, ku=ƛʼis is consistently translated as 'mud, dirt' (as opposed to niskʼa 'land', the latter was being created from mud). The same translation 'dirt' is offered for the example in [Cook 1984: 49]: "He threw dirt in his eye".
In [Hoijer 1956: 223], the equivalent nī is offered for the Swadesh item 'earth'; unfortunately, this archaic form is not confirmed by other sources.
Distinct from nìskʼá 'land', attested in the creation myth [Nanagusja 1996b: 153-154] (probably nis-kʼa with the postposition -kʼá 'on' [Cook 1984: 189]; further ni-s-kʼa?). Translation 'land' is confirmed for nìskʼá by the example in [Cook 1984: 71]: 'God', literally "earth he has made".
Distinct from ƛʰɒ̀ːz / possr=ƛʰɒ̀c-ɒ̀ʔ 'soft earth, mud; white clay' [Hoijer & Joël 1963: 68].
NUMBER:23
WORD:eat
Hupa:=yaːn1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 805; Golla 1996: 30; Golla 1996a: 388; Golla 1970: 154. The imperfective root variants are =yaŋ < *=yan [light] / =yaːn < *=yaːn-i [heavy], the perfective root variants are =yaŋʔ < *=yaːn-ʔ [light] / =yaʔn < *=yaːn-ʔ-i [heavy]. In [Golla 1996], also the reduced root variant =yuŋ [light imperf.] is quoted. Cf. the cognate noun kʼʸi-wi=yul 'what one eats (in general), food' < *=yaːn-ɬ-i [Golla 1996: 37].
Distinct from the ablaut verb =yeː ~ =yeh [imperf.] / =yaː-n (< *=yaː-n-i) [perf.] ‘to eat up, devour’ [Sapir & Golla 2001: 805, 806, 820; Golla 1996: 25]. The basic verb =yaːn ‘to eat’ looks like a result of generalization of the perfective stem of the aforementioned verb ‘to devour’.
Mattole:=yaːn1
Li 1930: 77. The imperfective root variants are =yaŋ < *=yaːn [light] / =yaːn < *=yaːn-i [heavy], the perfective root variants are =yaŋʔ < *=yaːn-ʔ [light] / =yaːʔn < *=yaːn-ʔ-i [heavy], see [Li 1930: 21 f.].
Distinct from the ablaut verb =yeː [imperf.] / =yaːh (< *=yaː-n) [light perf.] / =yaː-n (< *=yaː-n-i) [heavy perf.] with polysemy 'to eat (clean) up / to win (in gambling)' [Li 1930: 77].
Goddard 1912: 61. The imperfective root variants are =yaŋ < *=yaːn [light] / =yan < *=yaːn-i [heavy], the perfective root variant is =yanʔ < *=yaːn-ʔ-i [heavy].
Taldash Galice:=yãː1
Hoijer 1973: 69; Hoijer 1966: 326. Paradigm: =yãː [imperf.] / =yã-ʔ [perf.]. Also attested in a textual passage: "I used to drink human blood early in the morning, and (only) then I would eat (čʼa=š=yãː) well" [Jacobs 1968: 184 No. 11]. In [Hoijer 1956: 223], the basic verb for 'to eat' is erroneously quoted as =ya.
There is actually a second verb for 'to eat' in [Hoijer 1973: 68]: =kʰat [imperf.] / =kʰaʔ (< *=kʰat-ʔ) [perf.]. Both =yãː and =kʰat are quoted by Hoijer without semantic specifications and comments, but since =kʰat is only attested in [Hoijer 1973], it is likely that =kʰat is a more marginal or semantically specific word, and, therefore, cannot be considered a full-fledged synonym of the basic verb =yãː.
Distinct from the specific verb =kaʔs 'to eat grass-like food (e.g., spinach); to graze (intrans.)' [Hoijer 1973: 67].
Upper Inlet Tanaina:=l=qʰat2
Kari 2007: 278, 349.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:=l=qʰat2
Kari 2007: 278, 349.
Inland Tanaina:=l=qʰat2
Kari 2007: 278, 349; Wassillie 1979: 32; Holton et al. 2004: 23.
Iliamna Tanaina:=l=qʰat2
Kari 2007: 278, 349.
TFN_NOTES:
Paradigm: =l=qʰat [imperf.] / =l=qʰǝtʼ [perf.] in all the dialects; used with sg. obj. Distinct from =l=taɬ [imperf.] / =l=taƛʼ [perf.] (all dialects) 'to eat (pl. obj.)' [Kari 2007: 278, 329].
It is suspected in [Kari 1996: 60] that =l=qʰat / =l=qʰǝtʼ 'to eat' originates from the verb 'to slip, slide'. Such a solution seems likely, since the cognate Ahtena verb =l=qeːt / =l=qetʼ 'to slip, slide' can also mean 'choke on obj (food), swallow, gulp obj in chunks', thus the Proto-Tanaina development should be 'to slip > to gulp > to eat'. It must be noted, however, that the paradigms of the two synchronic Tanaina verbs do not fully coincide: =l=qʰǝt [imperf.] / =l=qʰǝtʼ [perf.] 'to slip, slide' (cf. the Inland perfective form =l=qʰǝtʼ in [Wassillie 1979: 90], whereas the imperfective form =l=qʰǝt is contained in the expression for 'pocket knife', lit. 'one that slips into slot' [Kari 2007: 194]).
Western Ahtena: =yaːn ~ =t=aːn [Kari 1990: 429, 513].
Mentasta Ahtena:=yãː ~ =t=ãː1
Kari 1990: 429, 513.
AHT_NOTES:
Paradigm: =(y)aːn [imperf.] / =(y)aːn-ʔ [perf.], see the additional forms in [Kari 1990: 680].
Dogrib:=ʔà3
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 123, 161. The system of Dogrib verbs of eating is complicated and not all of its details are clear. Based on attested examples, it may be concluded that =ʔà is the basic verb for 'to eat'. Subj. = sg. only(?), human/animal; obj. = any(?). Cf. especially the indefinite context "What are you eating?" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 123], and also the following examples: "Take two pills a day", "He eats donuts (by dunking them) in tea" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 75], "Obviously the dog ate it" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 85], "He is eating it all", "I ate all the bread" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 118], "The boy took the meat but he didn't eat it" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 123].
There are two other verbs, glossed as 'to have a meal, eat' by Saxon & Siemens:
1) =tʰĩ́ [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 92, 161], subj. = sg. & dual., human only(?). The examples are: "Eat!" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: iv], "Eat and then you may play" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 38], "Because I'm taking pills I can't eat", "I am able to eat" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 49], "They are thankful because they have meat to eat" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 92], "I've already eaten" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 122], and especially "Because you were eating delicious meat,..." [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 131].
2) =žé (innovative pronunciation =zé) [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 92, 161], subj. = pl., human only(?). The examples are: "There they cook meat and eat" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 39], "Lots of people are eating", "Are you going to eat?" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 92].
As may be seen from the examples, =tʰĩ́ and =žé are normally used as intransitive verbs; the most obvious counterexample where transitive use is attested is "Because you were eating (=tʰĩ́) delicious meat,...". It is possible that the Dogrib system is quadruple: transitive sg. =ʔà / transitive pl. ? / intransitive sg./dual. =tʰĩ́ / intransitive pl. =žé. It must be noted that it is unclear from the available sources which verb is used in the transitive function with pl. (and dual.) subj.
We prefer to treat transitive =ʔà and intransitive =tʰĩ́ as synonyms.
There are also several additional verbs of eating with more specific meanings:
1) =tè 'to eat', subj. = any; obj. = pl. [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 124, 161]. The examples: "We are eating crackers" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 16], "My mother eats any kind of berries at all" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 51], "In summer time bears eat berries of any kind" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 99], "Lots of people take medicine when their throats are sore", "I'm eating raisins" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 124]
3) =kʼá 'to eat', obj. = meat, orange, etc. (i.e., juicy food?) [Saxon & Siemens n.d.]; missing from [Saxon & Siemens 1996]. The example: "She is going to eat it".
North Slavey (Hare):=t=tʰĩ̀4
Rice 1978: 333, 463, 499.
The basic Hare verbs for 'to eat' are =t=tʰĩ̀, used with sg. & dual. subj. [Rice 1978: 333, 463], and =l=yiè with pl. subj. [Rice 1978: 333, 482].
Cf. numerous examples for sg. & dual. =t=tʰĩ̀: "He ran home to eat" [Rice 1978: 188], "I'm eating fish", "I ate again", "He's noisy when he eats", "We had already started to eat when they came in" [Rice 1978: 333], "He keeps me from eating" [Rice 1978: 370], "He eats all the time" [Rice 1978: 564], "I ate some food and it was bad for me" [Rice 1989: 25], "s/he ate berries, meat, and fish" [Rice 1989: 48], "who ate the bread?" [Rice 1989: 257], and so on.
Cf. examples for pl. =l=yiè: "We'll eat soon", "Let's eat" [Rice 1978: 333], "we just finished eating" [Rice 1989: 345].
Besides there is the old verb for eating, =ʔà, used with sg., dual. & pl. subj. It is glossed with polysemy: 'to eat / to chew' in [Rice 1978: 356, 401], but specified as 'to chew / to eat a small meal, snack' in [Rice 1989: 789]. This one is definitely more rarely used than =t=tʰĩ̀. Cf. the found examples for =ʔà: "I got a bad stomach from the food that I ate", "She has to take medicine" [Rice 1978: 356], "they are eating" [Rice 1989: 623], "I am eating (something)" [Rice 1989: 629].
Distinct from =t=tiè 'to eat (individual pieces, one by one)' [Rice 1978: 363, 386, 416], =t=ciè 'to eat up' [Rice 1978: 387, 425].
Tanacross:=ʔáːɬ3
Arnold et al. 2009: 107; Holton 2000: 349; Shinen 1958: 36. Paradigm: =ʔáːɬ [imperf.] / =ʔáːƛ [perf.].
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):=ʔaːɬ3
Milanowski 2009: 38, 96.
Scottie Creek: =hã̂ː 'to eat' [John 1997: 40], a different root.
The verb =yʌn̥ is glossed simply as 'to eat', whereas =ʔʌɬ is specified as 'to eat, chew' by Kari and 'to eat smth. (chewing)' by Tuttle; actually =ʔʌɬ shows polysemy: 'to eat / to bite' (q.v.). It is stated in [Kari 1994: 339] that =ʔʌɬ is more frequently used than =yʌn̥ for the meaning 'to eat', which is why we prefer to take =ʔʌɬ as the basic verb for 'to eat' (as well as for 'to bite').
Distinct from the specific verb =l=taƛ 'to eat (pl. obj.)' [Kari 1994: 65, 396] (note that =yʌn̥ and =ʔʌɬ are used with both sg. and pl. obj.).
Central Carrier:=ʔaɬ3
Poser 1998/2013: 689, 1218, 1247; Poser 2011a: 77; Antoine et al. 1974: 306. Polysemy: 'to eat / to chew'. Paradigm: =ʔaɬ [imperf.] / =ʔal [perf.] =ʔʌɬ [customary].
Distinct from the baby-talk verb =paʔ 'to eat' [Poser 1998/2013: 689, 1249].
Koyukon:=hoːn̥ ~ =t=oːn̥1
Jetté & Jones 2000: 285, 897; Jones 1978: 54. Paradigm: =(h)oːn̥ [durative imperf.] / =(h)iː-y̥ [momentaneous imperf.] / =(h)oːn-ʔ [perf.]. Perhaps normally used with sg. obj.
Distinct from =l=taːɬ [imperf.] / =l=taːƛ [perf.] with polysemy: 'to eat (pl. obj.) / eat, graze upon obj. (of animal)' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 121].
Degexit'an:=hoːn̥1
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1976: 3; Chapman 1914: 225. Paradigm: =hoːn̥ [durative imperf.] / =heː-y̥ [momentaneous imperf.] / =hoːn-ʔ [perf.] / =heː-ɬ [fut.]. Used with sg. subj. (regardless of the number of objects), cf. some examples: "He's eating breakfast", "I am eating crackers", "I'm eating from a dish", "She is eating", "He's eating fast", "I like to eat fish", "I'll eat it with onions", "Porcupine is sitting on a birch tree eating birch bark", "Raven is eating something" [Taff et al. 2007].
Distinct from =ɬ=noː-n̥ [imperf.] / =ɬ=noː-ʔ [perf.] 'to eat' [Kari 1976: 36], used with sg. subj. (regardless of the numer of obj.), cf. some examples: "they started to eat obj", "they don't eat obj" [Hargus 2000: 5], "we'll eat", "we started to eat" [Hargus 2000: 11], "You guys eat!", "We'll eat later", "We don't eat mushrooms" [Taff et al. 2007].
Sarsi:=s=nā5
Li 1930b: 20; Hoijer 1956: 222.
As noted in [Cook 1984: 156] and elsewhere, there are two verbs for 'to eat' in Sarsi, both without reliable etymology:
1) =s=nɒ̄ ~ =s=nɒ́- [imperf.] / =s=nɒ̀-ʔ [perf.] [Li 1930b: 20; Cook 1984: 156; Hoijer 1956: 222]. Cf. some examples: "What (kind) do you eat?" [Cook 1984: 60], "I don't eat that kind" [Cook 1984: 62], "The domestic animals that belong to you, that kind of animal, I eat" [Cook 1984: 65], "Grandfather: Let's sit down and eat" [Nanagusja 1996b: 69].
2) =cʰáʔ ~ =cʰát- [momentaneous imperf.] / =čʰíːž [iterative imperf.] / =cʰàʔ ~ =cʰàt- [perf.] [Li 1930b: 23, 25; Cook 1984: 156]. The iterative form =čʰiž was regularly assimilated < *=cʰiž (further < *=cʰit-ž). Cf. some examples: "He will eat all the food" [Cook 1984: 78], "'Because you do not speak to me, I shall eat it" [Cook 1984: 90], "He's finished eating" [Cook 1984: 157], "Don't eat!" [Cook 1984: 221], "after lunch, have them say: 'I ate well'" [Nanagusja 1996b: 70].
Both verbs are provided by a number of textual instances (above), but the semantic or pragmatic difference between the two is unclear. We treat them as synonyms.
Distinct from =s=tʼàh [imperf.] / =s=tʼàʔ ~ =s=tʼàk- [perf.] 'to eat up, to annihilate' [Li 1930b: 19].
Li 1930: 126. Quoted by Li as ʔi=ɣˈeːx-eʔ with the indefinite possessive pronoun (for which see notes on 'meat').
Bear River dialect: kʼoŋ ~ kʼoŋʔ 'egg' [Goddard 1929: 315].
Kato:possr=weš-iː1
Goddard 1912: 21; Essene 1942: 86.
Taldash Galice:possr=weːs-eʔ1
Hoijer 1973: 57; Hoijer 1956: 223. Quoted in [Hoijer 1973] as weːseʔ without a possessor prefix; probably a typo.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:possr=ʁay-a1
Kari 2007: 39, 349; Kari 1977: 53.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:possr=ʁaž-ʔa1
Kari 2007: 39, 349; Kari 1977: 53. In Nikolai Rezanov's data (1805), 'egg' is quoted as an unclear form possr=ƛʼazƛi [Kari 2007: 39]: apparently an error.
Inland Tanaina:possr=ʁaž-a1
Kari 2007: 39, 349; Kari 1977: 53; Wassillie 1979: 33.
Iliamna Tanaina:possr=ʁaž-ʔa1
Kari 2007: 39, 349; Kari 1977: 53.
TFN_NOTES:
Polysemy: 'egg / testicle' in all the dialects (for the latter meaning see [Kari 2007: 93]). Cf. the cognate verb =l=ʁaž 'to be round (3D)' q.v.
Central Ahtena:possr=ʁeːz-eʔ1
Kari 1990: 216, 513; Kari & Buck 1975: 25; Smelcer 2010: 43.
Arnold et al. 2009: 108; Holton 2000: 129, 346; Shinen 1958: 15. Polysemy: 'egg / round object'. Cf. the cognate verb =t=x̬èːs 'to be round 3D' q.v.
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):possr=xia-ʔ1
Milanowski 2009: 14, 73. Cf. the cognate verb =t=xia 'to be round' q.v.
Northway: possr=xea-ʔ 'egg' [Milanowski 2007: 7].
Scottie Creek: possr=xìa-ʔ 'egg' [John 1997: 7].
Lower Tanana (Minto):possr=ɣaʐ-aʔ1
Kari 1994: 123, 396. Polysemy: 'egg / testicles'. Cf. the cognate verbs: =t=ɣaʂ 'to nest, sit on nest of eggs', =l=ɣaʂ 'to be round 3D' [Kari 1994: 123].
Central Carrier:possr=ɣez1
Poser 1998/2013: 225, 694; Poser 2011a: 79; Antoine et al. 1974: 24. Polysemy: 'egg / testicles'.
Koyukon:possr=ʁaːz-ǝʔ1
Jetté & Jones 2000: 236, 897; Jones 1978: 55. Cf. the cognate verb =t=ʁǝs 'to be round 3D' q.v.
Degexit'an:possr=ʼaː=θ=ƛoːy2
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 14. Verbal form, although structural details are not entirely clear; possibly contains the classificatory verb =lo 'to handle pl. obj.' [Kari 1978: 34].
Sarsi:possr=ɣɒ̀s-ɒ̀ʔ1
Hoijer & Joël 1963: 71; Hoijer 1956: 222.
NUMBER:25
WORD:eye
Hupa:possr=naː-ʔ1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 774; Golla 1996: 32. Polysemy: 'eye / large seed, pit'. Synchronically, the root is to be defined as naː (not naːʔ, which should yield phonetic naʔ), as can be seen in some compounds like possr=naː-tʼuŋʔ 'eyelash' etc. [Sapir & Golla 2001: 773; Golla 1964: 112; Golla 1996: 32] and the adverbial forms like possr=naː 'waiting for possr', possr=naː-ɬ 'in the presence of possr' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 773].
Mattole:possr=nˈaːg-eʔ1
Li 1930: 128. Cf. the variant naʔ found in compounds like possr=naʔ-tʰˈoʔ 'tears' [Li 1930: 128] (with tʰoʔ 'water' q.v.), possr=naʔ-cʰˈeʔs 'eyelid' [Li 1930: 131] (with =cʰˈeʔs 'skin' q.v.) and the verbal incorporated morpheme naː- 'referring to the eye' [Li 1930: 58]. The phonetic relationship between the variants in -g- and -ʔ- is not entirely clear.
Bear River dialect: possr=nag-e ~ possr=naɣ-eʔ 'eye' [Goddard 1929: 316].
Kato:possr=naʔ1
Goddard 1912: 22; Curtis 1924: 201.
Taldash Galice:possr=taː-i1
Hoijer 1973: 53; Hoijer 1956: 223. Cf. this root in the compound possr=taː-tʰoː 'tears' (lit. 'eye water' with tʰoː 'water' q.v.) [Landar 1977: 294].
Upper Inlet Tanaina:possr=naʁ-a1
Kari 2007: 88, 349; Kari 1977: 97.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:possr=ǝɬtʰuʁ-ʔa2
Kari 2007: 88, 349; Kari 1977: 97. This form is obscure (so-called "elite replacement"). Kari explains this as possr=ǝɬ=tʰuʁ-ʔa with the literal translation 'liquid that is with him' [Kari 2007: 88] or 'liquid-grease that is with one' [Kari 1996: 61]. Kari may be implying possr=ǝɬ 'with X' (the postposition -ǝɬ 'with') plus the substantive ƛʰǝʁ 'oil, grease' (see notes on 'fat') - the latter morpheme was simplified (ƛʰǝʁ > tʰuʁ). However, we tentatively prefer to leave =ǝɬtʰuʁ- without analysis.
Inland Tanaina:possr=naʁ-a1
Kari 2007: 88, 349; Kari 1977: 97; Wassillie 1979: 34.
Poser 1998/2013: 291, 702; Antoine et al. 1974: 37, 307. Plural: possr=na 'eyes'. The suffix -kʼʌz means 'one member of a natural pair' [Poser 1998/2013: 1269], but it must be noted that the related substantive ʔʌ=kʼʌz̪ 'half' has a different phonetic shape [Poser 1998/2013: 56] (although in [Antoine et al. 1974: 31], this word is quoted as ʔʌ=kʼʌz).
Koyukon:possr=noːʁ-ǝʔ1
Jetté & Jones 2000: 487, 902; Jones 1978: 57. Polysemy: 'eye / month' (i.e., 'moon' as 'eye'?).
Distinct from the more specific and rare term noqʼo 'eye-substance or material' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 487]. Jetté explains the difference between possr=noːʁ-ǝʔ and noqʼo as follows: "The Ten'a use both noːʁǝʔ and noqʼo, to designate the eye, the former for the eye-substance or material, the latter for the eye-place or location".
Degexit'an:possr=naːqʼaː3
Taff et al. 2007. This word is glossed in [Taff et al. 2007] as 'person's eye', i.e., applicable to humans, although instances where possr=naːqʼaː is applied to mythical animals have also been found: "My eye is red" [Taff et al. 2007], "then, squirrel, his eye, began to cry" [Leonard 2007: 55], "his [raven's] eyes turned white" [Chapman 1914: 118]. Cf. the derivative naːqʼaː-t as 'eye socket' [Kari 1978: 33] (final -t is apparently the same locative suffix as Koyukon -t).
The second candidate is possr=maːq, glossed simply as 'eye' in [Kari 1978: 33], but specified as 'something's eye' [Taff et al. 2007], i.e., applicable to animals, cf. the only found example: "Big moose eye".
Additionally, there is an older root for 'eye', naː- and naːχ- ~ noːχ-~ nʊχ-, retained in verbal incorporation or as the first element of nominal compounds, e.g., na=ɬ=ʰǝƛ 'he has his eyes shut' [Taff et al. 2007], nʊχ-tθʼʊq 'glasses (lit. eye dish)' [Taff et al. 2007], possr=naːχ-toː-ʔ 'eye lid' [Kari 1978: 33], possr=naː-yeːd 'eyeball, pupil' [Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 33] (final -yeːd is apparently the same locative suffix as Koyukon -yǝt), etc. Cf. also the attested examples with possr=naː-yeːd 'eyeball' where it functions as a generic term: "His eyes are bloodshot" [Taff et al. 2007], "They washed him [a raven-like child], and dressed him in a fine parka, and he stared with those big eyes of his" [Chapman 1914: 114].
It seems that the basic term possr=naːqʼaː 'eye' is related to Koyukon noqʼo 'eye-substance or material', representing a semantic innovation in Degexit'an, although the old root naː(χ) is still retained in compounds. It is, however, quite probable that the vocalism of possr=naːqʼaː has been influenced by naː(χ)-. The rare term possr=maːq 'eye (of animal)' seems to be of unclear origin.
Sapir & Golla 2001: 780; Golla 1996: 33. Glossed as 'fat (on smb.'s body)', but the following example proves that =qʼah is more widely applicable: "On looking closer he was surprised to see that her dress was (made) of deer fat" [Goddard 1904: 164, 168]. The corresponding verb =qʼah (< *=qʼaːh) / =qʼaːw (< *=qʼaːh-i) means 'to be fat' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 780; Golla 1996: 33; Golla 1970: 139], but its application is unclear.
Mattole:possr=kʼah1
Li 1930: 130. Glossed simply as 'fat'. Quoted as ʔi=kʼah with the indefinite possessive pronoun ʔi-, for which see notes on 'meat'.
Distinct from kʰeː, which is glossed as 'fat, lard' in [Li 1930: 130] and probably represents a more specific term.
Bear River dialect: not attested.
Kato:kʼʷah1
Goddard 1912: 20, 110. Synchronically, used without obligatory possessor prefixes. Historically, a contraction from *kʰʷ=kʼah ‘smb’s/smth’s fat’ (with the fossilized indefinite possessive pronoun kʰʷ-, for which see [Goddard 1912: 21]). Cf. the cognate verb =kʼah (< *=kʼax) / =kʼaɣ (< *=kʼax-i) 'to be fat' [Goddard 1912: 18, 79].
Taldash Galice:čʼaː=kʼah1
Hoijer 1973: 61; Hoijer 1956: 223; Landar 1977: 294. Initial čʼaː= in Hoijer's transcription is the indefinite possessive pronoun čʼa= [Hoijer 1966: 322] (the vowel lengthening a > aː in čʼaː=kʼah is, however, not clear). Cf. the cognate verb =kʼah 'to be fatty, greasy' [Hoijer 1973: 68].
Upper Inlet Tanaina:possr=qʼǝχ1
Kari 2007: 13, 350; Kari 1977: 95.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:possr=qʼǝχ1
Kari 2007: 13, 350; Kari 1977: 95.
Inland Tanaina:possr=qʼǝχ1
Kari 2007: 13, 350; Kari 1977: 95; Wassillie 1979: 35. The second word quoted in [Wassillie 1979: 35] as a generic term for 'fat' is possr=tiɬkʰiti, for which see notes on Common Tanaina.
Iliamna Tanaina:possr=qʼǝχ1
Kari 2007: 13, 350; Kari 1977: 95.
TFN_NOTES:
possr=qʼǝχ is quoted in [Kari 1977; Kari 2007] as the only generic term for 'fat'.
Distinct from (possr)=t=i=ɬ=kʰit-i (all dialects), glossed as 'animal fat; whale, seal blubber' in [Kari 2007: 12], literally 'a handled food object' from the classificatory verb =ɬ=kʰit 'to handle a sticky object, esp. food' (on =ɬ=kʰit see [Tenenbaum 1978: 140; Holton et al. 2004: 40] for Inland, [Boraas 2010: 118] for Outer Inlet) plus the gender prefix -t- plus the relative nominalizer -(ʔ)i / -(y)i [Kari 2007: 329; Boraas 2010: 17, 144]. Cf. with similar structure: čʼ=ta=l=kʰit-i (all dialects) 'stored food, food for future use' [Kari 2007: 277].
Distinct from the terms for 'oil, grease' = ƛʰǝʁ (all dialects) and additionally Upper Inlet χa [Kari 2007: 278].
Central Ahtena:possr=qʼaχ1
Kari 1990: 252, 518; Kari & Buck 1975: 60; Smelcer 2010: 44.
Western Ahtena: possr=qʼaχ [Kari 1990: 252, 518; Kari & Buck 1975: 60; Smelcer 2010: 44].
Mentasta Ahtena:possr=qʼaχ1
Kari 1990: 252, 518; Kari & Buck 1975: 60; Smelcer 2010: 44.
AHT_NOTES:
Cf. the cognate verb =l=qʼaχ 'to be fat (especially of game animals)' [Kari 1990: 252].
Distinct from ƛʰaʁ 'oil, lard, solid fat, tallow, grease' [Kari 1990: 353] and possr=kʰʸaːc-eʔ 'rendered fat' [Kari 1990: 111] (both terms in all dialects).
Dogrib:possr=kʼá1
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 30, 43, 164. Glossed as 'fat, body fat' with the example "My mother is going to keep the fat to make lard"; applicable to both animals and humans. Cf. the cognate verb =kʼá 'to be fat' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 69].
Distinct from possr=ƛʰéh, glossed as 'lard, grease, oil, gasoline, fuel, ointment' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 100].
Arnold et al. 2009: 115; Holton 2000: 343; Shinen 1958: 15. Glossed as 'fat (food)'. The weakening of the final fricative -x > -h is irregular. The verb =l=kʼàːx 'to be fat' (applicable to humans) is based on this noun.
Distinct from čʼè=čʰáːʒ-ʔ 'rendered fat' [Arnold et al. 2009: 115; Holton 2000: 343] (initial čʼè= is the indefinite possessive pronoun).
Distinct from xéː, glossed as 'grease, lard' in [Arnold et al. 2009: 137].
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):possr=kʼah1
Milanowski 2009: 14, 74. Cf. the cognate verb =l=kʼaː 'to be fat' [Milanowski 2009: 45].
Distinct from xey, glossed as 'lard, grease, oil' in [Milanowski 2009: 28].
A difficult case with two candidates for the slot:
1) possr=kʼʊx, glossed simply as 'fat' [Kari 1994: 171, 401] without semantic specification and textual examples; cf. the cognate verb =l=kʼʌx 'to be fat' [Kari 1994: 171].
2) xa, possr=ɣa-ʔ, glossed as 'grease, lard' in [Kari 1994: 122] and 'fat, grease' in [Tuttle 2009: 73]. This term is more widely used, judging by data in [Kari 1994; Tuttle 2009], cf. the example: "They eat bear fat with crackers, dry meat". The cognate verb is =ɬ=ɣa 'to be greasy' [Kari 1994: 122].
We have to treat possr=kʼʊx and xa as synonyms.
Distinct from more specific terms: possr=cʰʌyu-ʔ 'abdominal fat, abdominal lining' [Kari 1994: 48, 341, 401] (probably derived from possr=cʰʌn̥ 'viscera, abdomen' with unclear -yu), possr=a-nʌƛ 'fat around heart, pericardium' [Kari 1994: 97, 401; Tuttle 2009: 73] (< a- 'heart', nʌƛ *'sack'), possr=tʰul-kʰac-aʔ 'fat in stomach' [Kari 1994: 152, 401] (morphologically unclear).
Central Carrier:possr=kʼo1
Poser 1998/2013: 219, 706; Poser 2011a: 84; Antoine et al. 1974: 30, 308. Cf. Antoine et al.'s example: "When we prepare meat (drying and smoking) we fry the fat (=kʼo) for its grease (=ɣe)". Cf. the cognate verb =l=kʼa ~ =ɬ=kʼa 'to be fat' [Poser 1998/2013: 706, 1221, 1256; Antoine et al. 1974: 308] (as in the example "He is fat").
Distinct from xe ~ possr=ɣe-(ʔ) 'lard, grease, oil' [Poser 1998/2013: 224; Antoine et al. 1974: 124]. Cf. the above example with 'fat' plus "He fries with grease only", "He treats his boots with oil" [Antoine et al. 1974: 124].
Koyukon:possr=qʼoχ1
Jetté & Jones 2000: 368, 904; Jones 1978: 59. Glossed as 'fat, suet, tallow'. Cf. the cognate verb =l=qʼoχ 'to be fat (of animal, meat)' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 368].
Degexit'an:possr=qʼʊχ1
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 32; Chapman 1914: 230. Cf. some examples: "I make ice cream with moose fat" [Taff et al. 2007], "And when it was day, she brought in her fine parka, the clean one, the best she had. Deer-fat too, and berries, she brought in" 108, "They did not sleep, for filling him up with deer-fat" [Chapman 1914: 114], "Below the place, deer-bones had been thrown over the bank. Below the bones there was a great quantity of fat" [Chapman 1914: 119]. Cf. the cognate verb =qʼʊχ 'to be fat' [Kari 1976: 44; Chapman 1914: 230].
Sarsi:possr=kʼā1
Hoijer & Joël 1963: 69. Cf. the example: "Then all wood he put on the fire. The old man said, 'All meat fat even cook'. Then all was cooked" [Goddard 1915: 251].
Sapir & Golla 2001: 743; Golla 1996: 33; Golla 1964: 114. Polysemy: 'feather / wing / fin'. Cf. also a different descriptive term possr=cʼi-s-kʸeː-ʔ 'fine feathers, down' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 753; Golla 1996: 33] from the bound verbal root =s=kʸe 'to be fuzzy'(?) [Sapir & Golla 2001: 752].
Mattole:tʼa-ʔ2
Li 1930: 128. Synchronically, should be analyzed as =tʼaː-ʔ (where the final glottal-stop is the old izafet exponent) rather than =tʼaʔ: cf. the cognate verb =tʼaː 'to feather an arrow' [Li 1930: 91].
Goddard 1912: 20, 100. Used without obligatory possessor prefixes. Cf. the cognate verb =tʼa 'to feather an arrow' [Goddard 1912: 82, 100].
Taldash Galice:possr=tʼa-iʔ2
Hoijer 1956: 223; Landar 1977: 294. It must be noted that in [Hoijer 1973: 55], there are such forms as tʼalkai 'tail or wing feather' and suffixed tʼalkay-ah 'short body feathers', which actually represent the collocation tʼa-lkai 'white feather' (with ɬ=kai 'white' q.v.).
Cf. the cognate verb =tʼah 'to feather an arrow' [Hoijer 1973: 66].
Upper Inlet Tanaina:possr=tʼu2
Kari 2007: 39, 350; Kari 1977: 52.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:possr=tʼu2
Kari 2007: 39, 350; Kari 1977: 52.
Inland Tanaina:possr=tʼu2
Kari 2007: 39, 350; Kari 1977: 52; Wassillie 1979: 35.
Iliamna Tanaina:possr=tʼu2
Kari 2007: 39, 350; Kari 1977: 52.
TFN_NOTES:
There is no generic term for 'feather' in Tanaina. possr=tʼu is specified by Kari as 'long feathers, wing or tail feather, quill'.
Differently in [Arnold et al. 2009: 116], where the possessed form possr=tʼã̌ː-ʔ 'feather' is quoted - in fact, with polysemy: 'leaf / feather'. The same form possr=tʼãː-ʔ is also attested in [Brean & Milanowski 1979: 5] with the gloss 'wing' (it should be noted that the actual Tanacross term for 'wing' is possr=ìn=cʼěn-ʔ [Arnold et al. 2009: 295; Holton 2000: 348]). Apparently, the old term tʼàː 'feather' is currently being superseded with possr=tʼã̌ː-ʔ 'leaf'. We treat both terms as synonyms.
Distinct from čʰùy̥ 'down' [Arnold et al. 2009: 116; Holton 2000: 343; Brean & Milanowski 1979: 5; McRoy 1973: 4].
Kari 1994: 256, 402; Tuttle 2009: 75. Possessed: possr=tʼʌ-ʔ. Glossed as 'feather, wing or tail feather'.
Distinct from collective possr=ɣʌ-ʔ with polysemy: 'hair / fur / feathers' [Kari 1994: 129].
Distinct from čʰutθ 'down feathers' [Kari 1994: 50], čʼǝ=čʰǝs-ka-ʔ 'down feathers' [Kari 1994: 46] (čʼǝ= is the indefinite possessive pronoun, -ka is a nominal suffix [Kari 1994: 106]).
Central Carrier:possr=tʼa ~ possr=tʼa-ʔ2
Poser 1998/2013: 474, 707; Poser 2011a: 84. Meaning specifically 'wing feather' with polysemy: 'wing feather / wing' (in [Antoine et al. 1974: 44] only as 'wing').
Distinct from c̪ʼʌz̪ 'breast feathers, down' [Poser 1998/2013: 510] (in [Antoine et al. 1974: 238, 308] this word is quoted as a generic term for 'feather').
Koyukon:tʼoː2
Jetté & Jones 2000: 552, 904; Jones 1978: 59. Meaning specifically 'quill, large feather, wing or tail feather'. Possessed: possr=tʼoː-ʔ ~ possr=tʼoːnʔ, the latter form possr=tʼoːnʔ with polysemy: 'feather / leaf'.
Distinct from possr=kʰuːƛ-ǝʔ 'small feathers, down feathers; fluffy, soft material' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 305].
Degexit'an:possr=tθʼǝθ-kǝ4
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 14. Cf. the examples: "Dance fans are made with swan feathers" [Taff et al. 2007], "I will tie a feather to his hair" [Chapman 1914: 107]. Morphologically unclear, cf. the verb =tθʼǝθ 'to caulk, chink'; final -kǝ may be the same as the desemanticized nominal suffix -kǝ in Koyukon.
'Down, soft feathers' is expressed by the collocation possr=tθʼǝθ-kǝ kʰeːdᶞ [Taff et al. 2007] with kʰeːdð 'soft', or simply as possr=kʰeːdð [Kari 1978: 14].
Distinct from the more specific terms possr=tʼoː-ʔ 'large feather' [Kari 1978: 14].
Sarsi:tʼaɣ- ~ tʼɒɣ-2
Hoijer & Joël 1963: 67; Hoijer 1956: 222; Nanagusja 1996b: 117, 121. Paradigm: tʼáh ~ tʼɒh / possr=tʼáɣ-ɒ̀ʔ ~ possr=tʼɒɣ-a (forms in ɒ are from [Nanagusja 1996b]). Polysemy: 'feather / wing'. Cf. such examples as "has wings, then plucks a feather" [Nanagusja 1996b: 148], "Hawk feathers are tied on the sword handle" [Goddard 1915: 207].
Distinct from possr=cʰús-ɒ̀ʔ which is glossed as 'feather' in [Hoijer & Joël 1963: 71], but apparently this word is to be read possr=cʼús-ɒ̀ʔ 'soft feathers, down' as follows from the transcription and translation in [Goddard 1915: 215].
NUMBER:27
WORD:feather
Hupa:
Mattole:
Kato:
Taldash Galice:
Upper Inlet Tanaina:
Outer Inlet Tanaina:
Inland Tanaina:
Iliamna Tanaina:
Central Ahtena:
Mentasta Ahtena:
Dogrib:
North Slavey (Hare):
Tanacross:possr=tʼã̌ː-ʔ3
Arnold et al. 2009: 116.
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):
Lower Tanana (Minto):
Central Carrier:
Koyukon:possr=tʼoːnʔ3
Jetté & Jones 2000: 552.
Degexit'an:
Sarsi:
NUMBER:28
WORD:fire
Hupa:xoŋʔ1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 803; Golla 1996: 35.
Mattole:kʰoŋʔ1
Li 1930: 130. Cf. the cognate verb =kʰoŋʔ 'to sit down by the fire to warm one's self' [Li 1930: 105].
Bear River dialect: kʰoŋʔ ~ kʰonʔ 'fire' [Goddard 1929: 316].
Kato:kʰʷoːŋʔ1
Goddard 1912: 20; Curtis 1924: 205.
Taldash Galice:kʰʷanʔ1
Hoijer 1973: 57; Hoijer 1956: 223; Landar 1977: 294. Cf. the cognate verb =kʰʷanʔ 'to warm oneself at the fire' [Hoijer 1973: 68].
Upper Inlet Tanaina:qʰǝn1
Kari 2007: 248, 350; Kari 1977: 131.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:tazʔi2
Kari 2007: 248, 350; Kari 1977: 131.
Inland Tanaina:tazʔi2
Kari 2007: 248, 350; Kari 1977: 131; Wassillie 1979: 38.
Iliamna Tanaina:tazʔi2
Kari 2007: 248, 350; Kari 1977: 131.
TFN_NOTES:
The old root for 'fire' is still in use in Upper Inlet (qʰǝn). In the other dialects, it has been replaced by the obscure form tazʔi (so-called "elite replacement"). Inherited qʰǝn 'fire', however, is still retained in various compounds such as, e.g., qʰǝn šil-a 'flame' (all dialects), lit. 'lightning of fire' [Kari 2007: 248], nu-qʰǝn-čʼ-tu-ɬ-tʼuɬ-i (all dialects) 'torch', lit. 'fire that we carry around' [Kari 2007: 249], and generally as the verbal incorporated element -qʰǝn- 'fire, sparks, heat, burn' [Tenenbaum 1978: 170; Boraas 2010: 126].
Distinct from the specific and morphologically unclear term yusti (all dialects), glossed as 'fire, open fire, fireplace, outdoor hearth' [Kari 2007: 248]. Another case of "elite replacement".
Central Ahtena:qʰõʔ1
Kari 1990: 244, 520; Kari & Buck 1975: 97; Smelcer 2010: 67.
Sapir & Golla 2001: 767; Golla 1996: 35. Originates from *ɬoːqʼi (without vowel shortening in the resulting form). Possessed form: possr=loːqʼ-eʔ. Polysemy: 'fish / salmon'. Cf. also the descriptive formation tʰohnaːy 'fish, eels, general term for all edible water creatures' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 789; Golla 1996: 35] (probably from tʰo- 'water' q.v. and xi-naːy 'fresh meat' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 775]).
Mattole:ɬoːkʼˈeh1
Li 1930: 133. Glossed as 'fish (salmon)'. Apparently a generic term with polysemy 'fish / salmon' (as in Hupa), cf. Li's translation "The coyote fooled his grandmother. 'I will spear fish (ɬoːkʼˈeh) for you', he said to her; 'I will kill deer for you'" [Li 1930: 139, 150].
Bear River dialect: ɬokʼa ~ ɬokʼe ~ ɬokʼ is only documented with the specific meaning 'salmon' [Goddard 1929: 305].
Kato:tʰo-nai2
Goddard 1912: 28; Goddard 1909: 71 fn. 15; Curtis 1924: 202; Essene 1942: 86. Explicitly explained by Goddard as the generic term for 'fish'. The first element is tʰo 'water' q.v., the second one probably means 'fresh meat', see notes on Hupa.
Distinct from ɬoːkʼ 'steel-head salmon' [Goddard 1912: 19].
Taldash Galice:ɬ=kʰʷay-aː3
Hoijer 1973: 57. Glossed by Hoijer as 'trout; all fish except salmon'. A nominalized verb form from the root =kʰʷay (e.g., a color designation); final -aː can be the relative enclitic -a 'one who' [Hoijer 1966: 322], although the vowel length is unclear.
On the contrary, in [Hoijer 1956: 223; Landar 1977: 294], 'fish' is quoted as ɬoːkʼeː (inaccurately transcribed by Landar as ɬoːkʰe), which only means specifically 'salmon' according to [Hoijer 1973: 62]. We treat ɬoːkʼeː as a synonym for 'fish'.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:cʰakǝla ~ sakǝla4
Kari 2007: 17, 350. The Upper Inlet word cʰǝpay is also quoted as a synonym in [Kari 2007: 17].
Outer Inlet Tanaina:šakǝla4
Kari 2007: 17, 350.
Inland Tanaina:šakǝla4
Kari 2007: 17, 350.
Iliamna Tanaina:šakǝla4
Kari 2007: 17, 350.
TFN_NOTES:
No generic term for 'fish' in [Kari 1977; Wassillie 1979]. In [Kari 2007: 17], two Common Tanaina words, which we treat as synonyms, are glossed as follows: šakǝla / sakǝla 'fish (generic), fish with white meat; trout', ɬiqʼa / ɬuqʼa 'fish; salmon (generic)'. In other sources, such as [Holton et al. 2004: 3, 21; Boraas 2010: 25; Lovick 2005: 49, 86], only ɬiqʼa / ɬuqʼa is translated as the generic 'fish'.
Out of these two, ɬiqʼa represents an old term; šakǝla and cʰǝpay are new formations, whose origin is unclear.
For semantic typology, note Outer Inlet & Inland possr=čakǝla, Upper Inlet possr=cʰǝpay-a 'calf (anatomic)' [Kari 2007: 94]. =čakǝla and šakǝla obviously represent one word (polysemy: 'fish / calf (anatomic)'), although the phonetic alternation č ~ š is unclear.
Western Ahtena: cʰa-peːy [Kari 1990: 103, 371, 520; Kari & Buck 1975: 10].
Mentasta Ahtena:cʰa-peːy5
Kari 1990: 103, 371, 520; Kari & Buck 1975: 10.
AHT_NOTES:
In [Kari & Buck 1975], cʰa-peːy is quoted as the generic term for 'fish'; in [Kari 1990], glossed with polysemy: 'fish with white flesh (generic term), trout / flesh of the calf of the leg'. No generic term for 'fish' in [Smelcer 2010].
Distinct from ɬuqʼeː 'salmon' (all dialects) [Kari 1990: 282; Kari & Buck 1975: 11; Smelcer 2010: 69].
Dogrib:ɬíwé ~ ɬíé1
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 70, 165. Glossed as simple 'fish'.
Kari 2007: 17, 350. The vowel u instead of the expected i is irregular.
Inland Tanaina:ɬiqʼa1
Kari 2007: 17, 350.
Iliamna Tanaina:ɬiqʼa1
Kari 2007: 17, 350.
Central Ahtena:
Mentasta Ahtena:
Dogrib:
North Slavey (Hare):
Tanacross:
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):
Lower Tanana (Minto):
Central Carrier:
Koyukon:
Degexit'an:
Sarsi:
NUMBER:30
WORD:fly v.
Hupa:=xis1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 800; Golla 1996: 37. Polysemy: 'to fall down, fall swooping / to fly'. The perfective root variant is =xicʼ < *=xic-ʔ.
The verb =tʼah / =tʼaw (quoted in [Hoijer 1956: 223] as 'to fly') means 'to float about in the air, wave (like a flag), waft about' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 790; Golla 1996: 36].
Mattole:=tʼaɣ2
Li 1930: 91. This is the heavy stem, originating from *=tʼax-i [Li 1930: 23]; the light stem is =tʼah < *=tʼax. Used with sg. subj.
Distinct from =tiɬ [imperf.] / =teːʔl [perf.] with polysemy: 'to go / to come / to go away / to fly' [Li 1930: 88], used with pl. subj.
Bear River dialect: not attested.
Kato:=tʼaɣ2
Goddard 1912: 72. This is the heavy stem, originating from *=tʼax-i; the light stem is =tʼah ~ =tʼa < *=tʼax. Applied to both sg. and pl. subj.
Taldash Galice:=tʼah2
Hoijer 1973: 66; Hoijer 1956: 223. It is unclear whether =tʼah is used with both sg. and pl. subj. or with sg. subj. only.
Distinct from =kas, glossed as 'to fly (away)', pl. subj. [Hoijer 1973: 67].
Upper Inlet Tanaina:
Not attested.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:
Not attested.
Inland Tanaina:=čǝχ3
Tenenbaum 1978: 151. Paradigm: =čǝχ [imperf.] / =čaqʼ [perf.], see the data in [Tenenbaum 1978: 151, 224; Lovick 2005: 164 ex. 4.50a, 4.50c]. Apparently, normally applied to sg. subj., although the use with pl. subj. is also attested, see [Tenenbaum 1976 2: 6, 9, 60, 61].
A second Inland verb for 'to fly (sg. subj.)' is =lǝn, see examples in [Tenenbaum 1978: 154, 178, 199; Tenenbaum 1976 1: 19, 20, 50, 52, 54, 71; 2: 1, 2, 3, 14, 38, 58, 66; 3: 46]. It must be noted that Tenenbaum normally glossed =lǝn as 'to fly away' or 'to fly back'. In [Wassillie 1979: 40], =lǝn is quoted for the meanings 'to fly about, across, back'.
A third Inland verb for 'to fly (sg. subj.)' is =tʼǝqʼ [perf.]; this root is quoted in [Holton et al. 2004: 39], but without any textual instances.
A fourth Inland verb for 'to fly (sg. subj.)' could be =l=zǝx, which is glossed as a generic verb for 'to fly (sg. subj.)' in [Kari 2007: 329] and [Wassillie 1979: 40], but according to [Tenenbaum 1976 1: 48, 51, 52; 2: 14; Lovick 2005: 34 ex. 1.29a], =l=zǝx rather shows the more specific meaning 'to fly around'.
Distinct from =tǝɬ [imperf.] / =taƛʼ [perf.] 'to fly (pl. subj.)' [Tenenbaum 1978: 151, 224; Holton et al. 2004: 39; Kari 2007: 329], the same verb as =taɬ [imperf.] / =taƛʼ [perf.] 'to go (pl. subj.)' q.v., thus, with polysemy: 'to go / to fly'.
Iliamna Tanaina:
Not attested.
TFN_NOTES:
Expressions for 'to fly' are scarcely and inconsistently documented. It must be noted that the most archaic root can be =tʼǝqʼ.
Central Ahtena:=tʼaːχ2
Kari 1990: 343, 523.
Lower Ahtena: =tʼaq [Kari 1990: 343, 523].
Western Ahtena: =tʼaq [Kari 1990: 343, 523].
Mentasta Ahtena:=tʼaːχ2
Kari 1990: 343, 523.
AHT_NOTES:
Paradigm: =tʼaːχ, =tʼaχ [imperf.] / =tʼaq [perf.] (for the fricativization of the final stops in the imperfective see [Kari 1990: 665; Rice 2003]). Actually, this is a generic verb: 'to move animate or stick-like object quickly' [Kari 1990: 343]. In the meaning 'to fly', used with sg. subj.
Distinct from =teːɬ [imperf.] / =teːƛʼ [perf.] 'to go / to come / to fly', used with pl. subj. [Kari 1990: 145].
Dogrib:=tʼá2
Saxon & Siemens 1996: ix, 61, 166. Used with sg. subj. only?
North Slavey (Hare):=l=wì4
Rice 1978: 258, 477, 502. Used with sg. and subj. This is the default verb for 'to fly (sg.)' as can be seen from numerous examples: "He wants it to fly away" [Rice 1978: 205], "The bird is flying" [Rice 1978: 258], "The airplane is flying around" [Rice 1978: 287], "It doesn't fly anymore" [Rice 1978: 289], "The bird flew away from us", "He'll fly back tomorrow" [Rice 1978: 307], "The bird flew up", "I flew here a while ago" [Rice 1978: 322], "The plane has to circle around" [Rice 1978: 331], "s/he flew to Norman Wells again" [Rice 1989: 352].
With pl. subj., the verb =tiè 'to go / to fly' [Rice 1978: 312, 418, 502] is used. Cf. some examples: "Look at the birds flying" [Rice 1978: 251], "Where are they flying?", "Let's fly back" [Rice 1978: 307], "The birds are flying" [Rice 1978: 312], "The birds will fly up" [Rice 1978: 322], "they are flying downriver" [Rice 1989: 320].
The old verb =t=tʼà 'to fly' [Rice 1978: 259, 465, 502; Hoijer 1956: 222] is used with all numbers, but its attestations are scant and applied to airplane only: "I'm going to fly there", "We'll fly for the meat" [Rice 1978: 259], "airplane (lit. boat that flies around)" [Rice 1989: 171].
Tanacross:=t=tʼàx2
Arnold et al. 2009: 123; Holton 2000: 160, 350. Paradigm: =tʼàx [imperf.] / =tʼèk ~ =tʼàk [perf.]. Used with sg. subj.
With pl subj., the verb =téɬ [imperf., fut.] / =tèːƛ [perf.] 'to go / to come / to run / to fly' is used [Holton 2000: 160].
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):=tʼah2
Milanowski 2009: 58, 97. Specified as 'to fly (as an airplane does)', no other Tetlin verbs for 'to fly' are documented.
Scottie Creek: =t=tʼah, attested in the example "The bluebottle fly is flying around" [John 1997: 44].
Lower Tanana (Minto):=tʼʊx2
Kari 1994: 260, 406; Tuttle 2009: 82. Paradigm: =tʼʌx, =tʼʊx [imperf.] / =tʼʊk [perf.] / =tʼʊx [fut.]. Used with sg. subj.
Distinct from =taɬ [imperf.] / =taƛ [perf.] / =tǝɬ [progressive] / =tǝ-k [customary] with polysemy: 'to go / to come / to fly / to swim' used with pl. subj. [Kari 1994: 64, 406].
Central Carrier:=tʼo2
Poser 1998/2013: 718, 1222, 1260; Poser 2011a: 92; Antoine et al. 1974: 309. Used with sg. & pl. subj. Actually, this is a classificatory verb with the generic meaning 'to handle a long rigid object in an uncontrolled manner' [Poser 1998/2013: 1222].
Koyukon:=tʼoq2
Jetté & Jones 2000: 559, 911; Jones 1978: 65. Paradigm: =tʼoq [neuter imperf.] / =tʼoːχ [momentaneous imperf.] / =tʼoq [momentaneous perf.] / =tʼoχ-ƛ [progressive imperf., momentaneous fut.]. Historically = =t=ʔoq with the "classifier" t- as follows from its synchronic morphophonological behavior [Jetté & Jones 2000: 559]. Used with sg. subj.
Distinct from =nǝ=yiːɬ [momentaneous imperf.] / =nǝ=yǝɬ-ƛ [progressive imperf.] / =nǝ=yǝɬ [perf.] 'to fly' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 691, 911; Jones 1978: 65] used with pl. subj. < the classificatory verb =yǝɬ 'to move elongated object quickly'.
In the Upper dialect, 'to fly (pl. subj.)' is expressed by the general verb of plural motion =taːɬ [imperf.] =taːƛ [perf.] / =tǝɬ ~ =tǝɬ-ƛ [fut.] with polysemy: 'to go / to come / to swim / to fly' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 117, 919].
Degexit'an:=tʼʊχ2
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1976: 48; Chapman 1914: 228. Paradigm: =tʼʊχ [imperf.] / =tʼʊq [perf.]. Polysemy: 'to fly / to throw stick'. Used with sg. subj.
Distinct from =yǝɬ 'to fly', used with pl. subj. [Taff et al. 2007].
Sarsi:=tʼɒ́h2
Li 1930b: 19; Hoijer 1956: 223. Paradigm: =tʼɒ́h [imperf.] / =tʼɒ̀ːy ~ =tʼɒ̀k- [perf.]. Used with sg. subj.
Distinct from =tàɬ [imperf.] / =táːl ~ =táƛʼ- [perf.] with polysemy: 'to go / to come / to fly' [Li 1930b: 18] used with pl. subj.
NUMBER:30
WORD:fly v.
Hupa:=xicʼ1
Perfective.
Mattole:
Kato:
Taldash Galice:
Upper Inlet Tanaina:
Outer Inlet Tanaina:
Inland Tanaina:=čaqʼ3
Perfective.
Iliamna Tanaina:
Central Ahtena:=tʼaq2
Perfective.
Mentasta Ahtena:=tʼaq2
Perfective.
Dogrib:
North Slavey (Hare):
Tanacross:=t=tʼèk2
Perfective.
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):
Lower Tanana (Minto):=tʼʊk2
Perfective.
Central Carrier:
Koyukon:
Degexit'an:=tʼʊq2
Perfective.
Sarsi:
NUMBER:31
WORD:foot
Hupa:possr=xe-ʔ1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 799; Golla 1996: 37. Polysemy: 'foot (of human or animal) / footprint / track'. As is noted in [Golla 1964: 115], on the synchronic level the root has two shapes: xeː ~ xe (as in possr=xeː-tʰaʔƛʼ ~ possr=xeː-tʰulʔ 'heel', literally 'foot stamper' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 799; Golla 1996: 45]) and xeʔ (as in possr=xeʔ-kʰʸeʔcʼ 'toenail'). A cognate verb is =xeh [light impef.] / =xiw (< *=xih-i)[heavy impef.] / =xe-ʔ [perf.] 'to track (an animal)' [Golla 1996: 99].
Distinct from the term for 'leg', which is expressed by the word for 'bone' q.v.: possr=cʼin-eʔ.
Mattole:possr=kʰeʔ1
Li 1930: 130. Cf. the cognate verb =kʰeʔ 'to track smbd.' [Li 1930: 21, 104] and the compound possr=kʰeʔ-kʷˈoːxʷ-eʔ 'ankle' (-kʷoːxʷ- 'joint') [Li 1930: 130].
Distinct from possr=čaːt-eʔ 'leg' [Li 1930: 131].
Bear River dialect: possr=kʰe(-)ʔ 'foot' [Goddard 1929: 316]. Attested also in the compound possr=kʰe=šimː-e 'toenail' [Goddard 1929: 298]. Distinct from possr=lokʼe (also erroneously possr=lokʰe), glossed as 'leg' or 'lower leg' in [Goddard 1929: 308, 317], literally 'smbd.'s salmon' (corresponds to Hupa possr=loːqʼ-eʔ 'calf of leg', lit. 'smbd.'s salmon' [Golla 1996: 56]).
Kato:possr=kʰʷeʔ1
Goddard 1912: 22. It must be noted that in [Curtis 1924: 201], this item is transcribed as =kʰe without labialization. In [Goddard 1912: 22], the analysis possr=kʰʷeʔ is proposed, but browsing through texts in [Goddard 1909] suggests that kʰʷeʔ is used either without prefixed possessive pronouns (e.g., [Goddard 1909: 112 No. 18, 180 No. 10]) or with the indefinite possessive pronoun kʰʷ-, i.e., kʰʷ=kʰʷeʔ ‘smb’s foot’ (e.g., [Goddard 1909: 116 No. 3/4/7, 118 No. 13]). Thus Goddard’s kʰʷeʔ ‘foot’ is historically a contraction from *kʰʷ=kʰeʔ ‘smb’s foot’ - cf. the similar case of kʼʷah ‘fat’ q.v.
Distinct from possr=woːs 'leg' [Goddard 1912: 22]. It must be noted that in [Curtis 1924: 201], 'leg' is quoted as possr=cʼǝn-e, i.e., 'bone' that coincides with the Hupa polysemy 'bone / leg' q.v.
Taldash Galice:possr=kʰeʔ1
Hoijer 1973: 57; Hoijer 1956: 223; Landar 1977: 294, 295. Polysemy: 'foot / foot print, tracks, trail / hoof'. In [Landar 1977], quoted as kʰʷeʔ - a contraction from the possessed form *wa=kʰeʔ 'his/its arm' (see [Hoijer 1966: 321]). Cf. the cognate verb =kʰeʔ 'to track down, trail (trans.)' [Hoijer 1973: 68].
Distinct from possr=cʼat-eʔ with polysemy: 'bone / leg' [Hoijer 1973: 59; Landar 1977: 295].
Upper Inlet Tanaina:possr=qʰa1
Kari 2007: 94, 350; Kari 1977: 107.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:possr=qʰa-ƛʼn-ʔa1
Kari 2007: 94, 350; Kari 1977: 106. Or, perhaps, to be read possr=qʰa-ƛʼna without the izafet exponent? Polysemy: 'foot / leg'.
Inland Tanaina:possr=qʰa1
Kari 2007: 94, 350; Kari 1977: 107; Wassillie 1979: 73. Polysemy: 'foot / back paw'.
Iliamna Tanaina:possr=qʰa1
Kari 2007: 94, 350; Kari 1977: 107.
TFN_NOTES:
The form =qʰa is the original term for 'foot'. Expressions for 'leg' are based on this word: Upper Inlet, Inland possr=qʰa-kʰǝn-a 'leg' [Kari 2007: 93; Kari 1977: 106; Wassillie 1979: 58], literally 'foot's base' (with kʰǝn 'base'). Differently in other dialects: Iliamna possr=qʰa-ƛʼn-ʔa 'leg' [Kari 2007: 93], Seldovia possr=qʰa-ɬn-a 'leg' [Kari 2007: 93], the nature of the elemen -ƛʼn- (> Seldovia -ɬn-) is unclear.
In Outer Inlet, possr=qʰa-ƛʼn-ʔa originally meant 'leg', but has also extended to denote 'foot', superseding plain =qʰa.
Central Ahtena:possr=qʰe-ʔ1
Kari 1990: 238, 523; Kari & Buck 1975: 70; Smelcer 2010: 51.
Scottie Creek: possr=kʰè-ʔ 'foot' [John 1997: 13] (cf. the compounds possr=kʰèː-kʼit 'top of foot', possr=kʰèː-ƛʼàːt 'sole of foot'), possr=tθʼɤn-ʔ 'leg' [John 1997: 14].
Lower Tanana (Minto):possr=kʰa-ʔ1
Kari 1994: 151, 406; Tuttle 2009: 83. Polysemy: 'foot / footwear'. The non-possessed variant is kʰa.
Distinct from possr=kʰa-čʰǝn-aʔ 'boots / lower leg' [Kari 1994: 44, 151, 429] (literally 'base of foot'), possr=ɣʊθ-čʰǝn-aʔ 'upper leg' [Kari 1994: 139, 429] (literally 'base of thigh').
Central Carrier:possr=kʰe1
Poser 1998/2013: 209, 720; Poser 2011a: 93; Antoine et al. 1974: 27, 308. Polysemy: 'foot / hind paw / propeller'.
Distinct from possr=kʰe-čʰʌn 'leg' [Poser 1998/2013: 209, 787; Antoine et al. 1974: 27, 316], literally 'handle of foot' with possr=čʰʌn 'handle of broom, canoe paddle, or similar object, stem of plant' [Poser 1998/2013: 102].
Koyukon:possr=qʰaː-ʔ1
Jetté & Jones 2000: 324, 912; Jones 1978: 66. Polysemy: 'foot / hind foot of animal'.
Distinct from the term for 'leg': possr=ƛʼǝn-ǝʔ 'bone / skeleton / leg / shell' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 600; Jones 1978: 93].
Distinct from the term for 'lower leg': possr=coːt-ǝʔ 'leg, lower leg; tapered post, stanchion' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 178]. As explained by Jetté: "Especially the lower portion, from the knee down. [...] =coːt-ǝʔ and =ƛʼǝn-ǝʔ are both said of the whole leg, but =coːt-ǝʔ refers more particularly to the lower portion" [Jetté & Jones 2000: 178].
Degexit'an:possr=qʰaː-ʔ1
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 37; Chapman 1914: 229. Polysemy: 'foot / paw'. For morphology, cf. such compounds as possr=qʰaː-ƛʼoːʁ 'sole of foot' [Kari 1978: 37], etc.
Distinct from possr=tθʼǝn 'leg' [Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 37; Chapman 1914: 221].
Distinct from possr=ɣùs 'leg' [Hoijer & Joël 1963: 69].
NUMBER:32
WORD:full
Hupa:=min1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 771; Golla 1996: 38; Golla 1970: 141. Verbal root 'to be full'. Originates from the heavy stem *=min-i with short -i-. Cf. the cognate verb =miŋ < *=meːn [light imperf.] / =meːn < *=meːn-i [heavy imperf.] / =miŋʔ < *=meːn-ʔ [light perf.] 'to fill (trans.)' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 770; Golla 1996: 34] with long -eː-.
Mattole:=piŋ1
Li 1930: 84. Verbal root 'to become full'. Imperfective stem, originating from *=pi(ː)n; the heavy perfective stem is =piːʔn< *=pi(ː)n-ʔ-i.
Bear River dialect: not attested.
Kato:=pǝŋ1
Goddard 1912: 69. Verbal root: 'to be full; to fill'. Imperfective stem, originating from *=pi(ː)n; the perfective stems are =piŋʔ< *=pi(ː)n-ʔ / =pinʔ< *=pi(ː)n-ʔ-i.
Taldash Galice:=man1
Hoijer 1973: 63; Hoijer 1956: 223. Verbal root with polysemy: 'to be full / to be deep (said of river)'. Paradigm: =man [imperf.] / =manʔ < *=man-ʔ [perf.].
Upper Inlet Tanaina:
Not attested.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:
Not attested.
Inland Tanaina:=l=vǝn1
Wassillie 1979: 42. Polysemy: 'to fill (trans.) / to be full, filled'. Applied to liquids. The following examples have been found: "The gas tank is full" [Wassillie 1979: 42], "She filled the mouse bladder (with oil)" [Tenenbaum 1976 1: 10].
Distinct from the verb =ʁǝt 'to fill (trans.) / to be full', used in the example: "Who could fill these (= snowshoes)? ... They were already filled (with webbing, raw-hide lacing)" [Tenenbaum 1976 1: 65; Tenenbaum 1978: 76, 151]. The same root is attested as =l=ʁǝt with the meaning 'to haul': "I haul wood" [Tenenbaum 1978: 148].
Distinct from the verb =l=tʼǝčʼ / =ɬ=tʼǝčʼ 'to fill (trans.) / to be full', used in the examples: "He filled up his pockets all over his whole body with cranberries" [Tenenbaum 1976 2: 14; Lovick 2005: 35], "He filled the boat with spruce cones" [Tenenbaum 1976 2: 63].
Sometimes generic (classificatory) verbs can be used with the meaning 'to be full', cf. =čʰuqʼ 'to handle multiple objects' in the example "It's full of sugar" [Wassillie 1979: 42].
Iliamna Tanaina:
Not attested.
Central Ahtena:=l=pen1
Kari 1990: 105, 525.
Lower Ahtena: =l=pen [Kari 1990: 105, 525].
Western Ahtena: =l=pen [Kari 1990: 105, 525].
Mentasta Ahtena:=l=men1
Kari 1990: 105, 525.
AHT_NOTES:
Verbal root, glossed as 'to be filled with liquid, be full'.
Dogrib:=ʔṍ2
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 12, 168. Verbal root: 'to be full'. Examples: "Fill the barrel with oil" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 12], "Fill it up only once" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 53].
North Slavey (Hare):=ʔõ̀2
Rice 1978: 215, 410, 503; Hoijer 1956: 222. This is actually the "classificatory" verb =à [imperf.] / =ʔõ̀ [perf.] with the generic meaning 'to be in position (of 3-dimensional obj.)' [Rice 1978: 404; Rice 1989: 782, 794]; further notes see under 'give'.
Tanacross:=l=ʔãː2
Arnold et al. 2009: 128. Verbal root: 'to be full (of liquid)'.
Distinct from =l=tók 'to be packed, full', =tʰèk 'to be full (from eating), satisfied' [Arnold et al. 2009: 128].
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):=l=cʼak3
Milanowski 2009: 120.
Distinct from =l=tʰak 'to be full (from eating)' [Milanowski 2009: 53, 97].
Lower Tanana (Minto):
Not documented properly.
Central Carrier:=pʌn1
Poser 1998/2013: 728, 1218, 1249; Poser 2011a: 95; Antoine et al. 1974: 310. Verb with polysemy: 'to be full / to fill'. Paradigm: =pʌn [imperf., perf.] / =pi-h [customary]. Cf. the examples: "The pail is full of rain water" [Poser 1998/2013: 127], "It (a glass) is half-full" [Poser 1998/2013: 338], "Williston Lake is full [of water]" [Poser 1998/2013: 447], "The barn is very full of hay" [Poser 1998/2013: 532].
Koyukon:=l=ʔoːn̥2
Jetté & Jones 2000: 64, 915; Jones 1978: 68. Polysemy: 'to be sufficient, enough / to be full'. Cf. some examples: "The pail is full", "The freezer is full". Paradigm: =l=ʔoːn̥ ~ =l=ʔoːn-ʔ [neuter imperf.] / =l=ʔoː-ʔ [neuter perf.]. As plausibly proposed by Jetté & Jones, denasalized forms are due to influence of the generic classificatory verb =ʔoː '(compact) object is in position' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 40].
Degexit'an:=vǝn̥1
Taff et al. 2007; Chapman 1914: 219. In [Kari 1976: 8] it is glossed as 'to pour, surge, spill'; thus, the underlying meaning is 'to be filled up'.
Cf. some examples: "Kayak is full (of killed game)" [Chapman 1914: 125], "She took it and put it into her mouth, and sucked it until her mouth was full. When her mouth was full, she emptied it into the water in which he had washed himself" [Chapman 1914: 145], "Their house was full of every kind of skin that there is upon this earth below" [Chapman 1914: 147], "My cup is full", "Is your pail full?" [Taff et al. 2007].
Sarsi:=cʼìs-t5
Li 1930b: 24; Hoijer 1956: 223. Verbal stem: 'to be full'; =cʼìs-t is the imperf. & perf. form. Final -t(ʰ) is the fossilized perfective exponent, on which see further in [Li 1930b: 11].
NUMBER:32
WORD:full
Hupa:
Mattole:
Kato:
Taldash Galice:
Upper Inlet Tanaina:
Outer Inlet Tanaina:
Inland Tanaina:
Iliamna Tanaina:
Central Ahtena:
Mentasta Ahtena:
Dogrib:
North Slavey (Hare):
Tanacross:
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):
Lower Tanana (Minto):
Central Carrier:
Koyukon:=l=ʔoː-ʔ4
Perfective.
Degexit'an:
Sarsi:
NUMBER:33
WORD:give
Hupa:=ʔaː1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 730, 731; Golla 1996: 40. A classificatory verb whose general meaning is 'to handle a round object'. The set =ʔa-ʍ (< *=ʔaː-ʍ) / =ʔaː-n (< *=ʔaː-n-i) is directional imperfective/perfective, =ʔaː / =ʔa-ʔ (< *=ʔaː-ʔ) is nondirectional imperfective/perfective [Golla 1977: 357].
Mattole:
Not attested. Cf. the classificatory verb with the general meaning 'to handle round object', which could be the default expression for 'to give' (like in Hupa q.v.): directional imperfective =ʔaː-x, directional perfective =ʔa-ŋ [light; < *=ʔaː-n] / =ʔaː-n [heavy; < *=ʔaː-n-i], nondirectional imperfective =ʔaː [light] / =ʔa-i [heavy; < *=ʔaː-i], nondirectional perfective =ʔa-ʔ [Li 1930: 72].
Bear River dialect: not attested.
Kato:=ʔa1
Goddard 1912: 59 (sub =ʔaiʔ and =ʔaŋ). A classificatory verb whose general meaning is 'to handle a round object'. Among several classificatory verbs, used in the meaning 'to give' with corresponding specific objects, =ʔa is the most generic one. Interrogative contexts like "What did you give him?" are not documented in [Goddard 1909], but contexts with generic objects are attested: "All the people gave (=ʔa) him different things (= made him presents of all kinds)" [Goddard 1909: 102 No. 5], "Many people [...] gave (=ʔa-ŋ) him various presents" [Goddard 1909: 157 No. 7]. Attested paradigmatic forms: directional imperfective =ʔa-š, directional perfective =ʔa-ŋ < *=ʔaː-n, nondirectional imperfective =ʔaː / =ʔa-i, nondirectional perfective =ʔa-ʔ (also secondary =ʔa-i-ʔ).
Taldash Galice:
Not attested. Cf. the classificatory verb with the general meaning 'to handle round solid object', which could be the default expression for 'to give' (like in Hupa q.v.): =ʔa-š [imperf.] / =ʔãː < *=ʔaː-n [perf.] [Hoijer 1973: 63 No. 11].
Upper Inlet Tanaina:
Not attested.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:
Not attested.
Inland Tanaina:
As follows from [Wassillie 1979: 44; Tenenbaum 1978: 132 ff.; Holton et al. 2004: 40 ff.], 'to give' is expressed by the so-called classificatory verbs with the general meaning 'to handle obj'. The choice of a specific verb depends on the kind of object (elongated, fabric-like, plural, and so on), see [Tenenbaum 1978: 132 ff.; Holton et al. 2004: 40 ff.] for the Inland classificatory verbs and [Boraas 2010: 118] for the Outer Inlet ones. Which of the classificatory verbs is used as the default one (i.e., in contexts such as "What did you give him?" or "Give me something"), however, remains uncertain.
Iliamna Tanaina:
Not attested.
Central Ahtena:=ʔaː-n1
Kari 1990: 70, 527.
Lower Ahtena: =ʔaː-n [Kari 1990: 70, 527].
Western Ahtena: =ʔaː-n [Kari 1990: 70, 527].
Mentasta Ahtena:=ʔaː-n1
Kari 1990: 70, 527.
AHT_NOTES:
Paradigm: =ʔaː-n [imperf.] / =ʔa-ʔ [perf.], etc. A classificatory verb whose general meaning is 'to handle a compact object'. For the generic meaning 'to give', cf. the example "he gave it to him" [Kari 1990: 71]. With specific objects, other classificatory verbs with the corresponding meanings can be used.
Dogrib:
The meaning 'to give' is expressed by the so-called classificatory verbs with the general meaning 'to handle obj'. The choice of a specific verb depends on the kind of object. Cf. the list in [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 170]: =tʰè 'animate object', =ʔà 'chunky object', =čʰí 'cloth object', =xé 'heavy object', =wá 'many things', =kʰá 'plateful', =lé 'plural objects', =tʰĩ̀ 'rigid object', =čʰí 'single object'.
Which of the aforementioned classificatory verbs is used as the default one (i.e., in contexts such as "What did you give him?" or "Give me something") remains uncertain.
The meaning 'to give' is expressed by the so-called classificatory verbs with the general semantics 'to handle obj' / 'obj is in position'. The choice of the specific verb depends on the kind of object. Cf. the list of classificatory verbs in [Rice 1989: 779-788] (Rice's description is generally based on the South Slavey language, but the North Slavey system is very similar). A distinctive feature of North Slavey and South Slavey is that the classificatory verbs are separated into two synonymous sets. The distinction between the action described by these two sets can be very roughly explained as controlled/uncontrolled or polite/impolite (without negative connotations). E.g., a verb from the first set describes the action 'to give carefully and politely', a verb from the second one describes the action 'to give quickly', see [Rice 1989: 784, 787].
According to [Rice 1989: 794], the most generic classificatory verbs combined with a wide spectrum of objects are "controlled" =ʔà [imperf.] / =ʔõ̀ [perf.] and "uncontrolled" =t=šù. Cf. some examples for =ʔà / =ʔõ̀ 'to give': "He gave roe a rolled up blanket", "Let me have the knife", "I gave him cents" [Rice 1978: 252]. Cf. some examples for =t=šù 'to give' "Give me the axe", "He handed me a pencil", "I handed him the baby" [Rice 1978: 251].
The meaning 'to give' is expressed by the so-called classificatory verbs with the general meaning 'to handle obj' plus the specific prefix ƛʼàː=. The choice of a specific verb depends on the kind of object. Cf. the list in [Arnold et al. 2009: 29 ff., 131; Shinen 1958: 42]: =ʔàː-y̥ [imperf.] / =ʔãː [perf.] 'general, compact object', =tʰìːy̥ [imperf.] / =tʰãː [perf.] 'long object', =kʰàːy̥ [imperf.] / =kʰãː [perf.] 'pourable object, object in open container', =čʰùːθ [imperf.] / =čʰúːθ [perf.] 'flat, flexible object', =čʰùːt [imperf.] / =čʰúːt [perf.] 'piece of food', =tʰèːy̥ [imperf.] / =tʰẽː [perf.] 'living being', =ɬ̬èːy̥ [imperf.] / =ƛàh [perf.] 'plural objects'. There is also an eighth classificatory verb for 'mushy object', mentioned in [Arnold et al. 2009: 30].
The meaning 'to give' is expressed by the so-called classificatory verbs with the general meaning 'to handle obj' plus the prefix ƛʼaː=. The choice of any specific verb depends on the kind of object. Cf. the list in [Milanowski 2009: 114-117]: =ʔãː 'general; round; hollow', =tʰãː 'long; speaker's vegetation; fluid mass', =kʰay̥ 'fluid; object in open container', =ndiːk 'fabric', =tʰĩː 'living being', =ƛah 'rope-like; plural objects'.
The meaning 'to give' is expressed by the so-called classificatory verbs with the general meaning 'to handle obj' frequently accompanied with the prefix ƛʼǝ= [Kari 1994: 266]. The choice of any specific verb depends on the kind of object. The Lower Tanana system of classificatory verbs has not yet been described properly, but it seems that =ʔʌ- 'to handle compact object' is the most generic expression for 'to give'. Cf. some examples with ƛʼǝ=...=ʔʌ- 'to give': "I gave her the hat", "give him the plate", "hand me that book" [Kari 1994: 20].
The meaning 'to give' is expressed by the so-called classificatory verbs with the general meaning 'to handle obj'. The choice of any specific verb depends on the kind of object. Cf. the list in [Poser 2011b: 36; Poser 1998/2013: 12; Antoine et al. 1974: 368 ff.]: =ʔa 'non-plural generic object', =c̪ai 'uncountable objects (sugar, berries)', =le 'plural default objects', =kʰo 'contents of open container (cup of tea)', =tʰan 'long rigid object (stick)', =tʰe 'body (dog)', =čʰus̪ 'two-dimensional flexible object (shirts)', =ƛʰe 'mushy stuff (mud)', =ce 'liquid (water); hay-like (hay)', =to 'fluffy stuff (down)', and some others which can be found in [Poser 1998/2013: 1247-1266].
Koyukon:ƛʼoː=...=ʔoː-y̥1
Henry & Henry 1965; Jetté & Jones 2000: 40. Paradigm: =ʔoː-y̥ [momentaneous imperf.] / =ʔoː-n̥ [momentaneous perf.].
The meaning 'to give' is expressed by the so-called classificatory verbs with the general meaning 'to handle obj' / 'obj is in position' frequently accompanied with the prefix ƛʼoː= [Jetté & Jones 2000: 608]. The choice of any specific verb depends on the kind of object. Cf. the non-exhaustive list in [Henry & Henry 1965: 113]: =ʔoː-y̥ / =ʔoː-n̥ 'round, solid object, or an object not otherwise classified (e.g., ball, rock, ball of rope, book, sun, clock, axe, barrel, bead, coin, house, village)'; =tʰiː-y̥ / =tʰoːn̥ 'rigid, usually slender object (e.g., pencil, log, lumber, door, dried fish, one snowshoe, feather, arrow, boat, sled, blade of grass)' with =ɬ=tʰiː-y̥ / =ɬ=tʰoːn̥ 'large, bulky object (e.g., mattress, packsack, bag of flour or sugar)'; =tʰaː-y̥ / =tʰaː-n̥ 'animate or living being'; =qʰoː-y̥ / =qʰoː-n̥ 'container and its contents (e.g., bowl of soup, cup of coffee, box of eggs, bucket of rocks, can of trash)'; =kʰuːɬ 'flexible or fabric-like object (e.g., article of clothing, blanket, tent, fishnet, piece of paper)'; =ƛʰaːχ / =ƛʰaːq 'soft, sticky mass (e.g., cooked cereal, dough, soft mud)'; =kʰuːt 'food that can be consumed immediately (e.g., a meal, soup, cooked meat)'; =noːχ / =noːq 'powdery or granular mass not in a container (e.g., sand, flour, salt, sugar)'; =laː / =loː 'general plural class' plus =lyaː / =lyoː 'specialized plural class, usually small round objects of a large quantity and belonging to a set (e.g., unstrung beads, berries, rocks in a landslide, potatoes)'.
Degexit'an:ƛʼoː=...=ʔoː-y̥1
Taff et al. 2007. Paradigm: =ʔoː-y̥ [imperf.] / =ʔoː-n̥ [perf.]. The meaning 'to give' is expressed by the so-called classificatory verbs with the general meaning 'to handle obj' / 'obj is in position', frequently accompanied with the prefix ƛʼoː=. Apparently =ʔoː-y̥ 'to handle compact object' [Kari 1976: 4] is used for the most generic expression for 'to give', cf. some examples: "She gave it to me for Mothers' Day", "Give me half of that", "He gave me part of it" [Taff et al. 2007].
The meaning 'to give' is expressed by the so-called classificatory verbs with the general meaning 'to handle obj'. The choice of any specific verb depends on the kind of object. Cf. the list in [Cook 1984: 140]: =ʔɒ̀h / =ʔɒ́(n-) 'round, solid object'; =s=tʰàh / =s=tʰí(n-) 'sg. living being'; =tʰìh / =tʰɒ́(n-) 'long object'; =V=kʰɒ̀h / =V=kʰɒ́(n-) 'object with a dish'; =cáh / =čàːž ~ =čàč- 'grain-like object'; =s=cʰús / =s=cʰùːz 'fabric-like object'; =V=tʰàs / =V=tʰáːz ~ =s=tʰác- 'pl. living beings'; =lɒ́ 'pl. object'.
NUMBER:33
WORD:give
Hupa:
Mattole:
Kato:
Taldash Galice:
Upper Inlet Tanaina:
Outer Inlet Tanaina:
Inland Tanaina:
Iliamna Tanaina:
Central Ahtena:
Mentasta Ahtena:
Dogrib:
North Slavey (Hare):=t=šù2
Rice 1978: 251, 458, 504.
Tanacross:
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):
Lower Tanana (Minto):
Central Carrier:
Koyukon:
Degexit'an:
Sarsi:
NUMBER:34
WORD:good
Hupa:=ʍoːn1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 797; Golla 1996: 41. Verbal root 'to be good'. The heavy imperfective stem, originating from *=ʍoːn-i; the perfective stem is =woʔn < *=woːn-ʔ-i with the causative menaing 'to suit, be goot to' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 797; Golla 1996: 92].
Mattole:=xʷoːn1
Li 1930: 81. Verbal root 'to be good'. This is the heavy stem, originating from *=xʷoːn-i; the light stem is =xʷoŋ < *=xʷoːn [Li 1930: 21 f.].
Bear River dialect: =xʷon ~ =hʷoŋ ~ =hʷaŋ 'to be good' [Goddard 1929: 316].
Kato:=šoːŋ1
Goddard 1912: 67. Verbal root: 'to be good'.
Taldash Galice:=šo1
Landar 1977: 294. Glossed as 'good, right'. Apparently an inaccurate transcription for the expected **=šõː.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:ya=ʁǝl-i2
Kari 2007: 316, 351; Kari 1977: 249.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:ya=ʁǝl-i2
Kari 2007: 316, 351; Kari 1977: 249. The variant ya=ʁal-i is also attested [Boraas 2010: 43 et passim].
Inland Tanaina:ya=ʁǝl-i2
Kari 2007: 316, 351; Kari 1977: 249; Wassillie 1979: 45.
Iliamna Tanaina:ya=ʁǝl-i2
Kari 2007: 316, 351; Kari 1977: 249.
TFN_NOTES:
Widely applicable. Syntactically, a noun-like adjective (in [Lovick 2005: 106], classified as a particle). Apparently a form with the relative nominalizer -(ʔ)i / -(y)i; initial ya= is not entirely clear (e.g., < *yǝ-a with the 3rd p. object pronoun and the postposition 'in contact with'). Cf. the plain root in ʁǝl-i 'real, true, genuine, really' [Kari 2007: 317; Kari 1977: 249].
Central Ahtena:ʁel-i2
Kari 1990: 218, 528.
Lower Ahtena: ʁel-i [Kari 1990: 218, 528].
Western Ahtena: ʁel-i [Kari 1990: 218, 528].
Mentasta Ahtena:ʁel2
Kari 1990: 218, 528. Regular reduction of final -i.
AHT_NOTES:
A noun-like adjective, glossed as 'good, real, true'. Cf. u=ʁel-i, used in the predicative position and glossed as 'good, fine, well, excellent' (also substantivized 'a good thing'; all dialects) [Kari 1990: 218].
Dogrib:=zĩ́1
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 80, 171. Verbal root, glossed as 'to be good, right, nice, proper, neat'. Widely applicable, e.g., "He became a good man" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 73], "Is the meat good?" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 82], "Everyone serves the good wine first..." [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 99], "The radio is old so it doesn't sound good" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 117].
North Slavey (Hare):=zõ̀1
Rice 1978: 302, 485, 507.
Tanacross:=s̬ũː1
Arnold et al. 2009: 134; Holton 2000: 350; Shinen 1958: 20. Verbal root 'to be good', widely applicable.
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):=sõː1
Milanowski 2009: 97, 120. Verbal root: 'to be good'.
Scottie Creek: =s̬õː 'to be good' [John 1997: 1].
Lower Tanana (Minto):=ʐun̥ ~ ʐu-ʔ-u1
Kari 1994: 355, 412. The verb =ʐun̥ 'to be good' and the cognate noun-like adjective ʐu-ʔ-u ~ ʐǝ-ʔ-u (< *ʐun-ʔ-u) 'good' coexist in the language. Widely applicable.
Central Carrier:=zu1
Poser 1998/2013: 742, 1224, 1265; Poser 2011a: 103; Antoine et al. 1974: 311. Verbal stem: 'to be good', widely applicable. Paradigm: =zu [imperf.] / =zu-ʔ [perf.].
Koyukon:=zuː-n̥1
Jetté & Jones 2000: 743, 919; Jones 1978: 72. Verbal stem: 'to be good', widely applicable. Paradigm: =zuː-n̥ [neuter imperf.] / =zuː-ʔ [neuter perf.].
Degexit'an:=ʐeː-n̥1
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1976: 68; Chapman 1914: 221. Verbal stem: 'to be good', glossed as 'good, handsome, pretty' in [Taff et al. 2007]. Cf. the examples: "The duck soup is good", "It's nice outside", "He saw a pretty woman", "Orange juice is good", "His boss is good" [Taff et al. 2007].
Distinct from the noun-like adjective neːg 'good' [Taff et al. 2007] which, apparently, is used less frequently. Cf. the examples: "This is good soup", "She makes good fry bread", "He has a good job" [Taff et al. 2007].
Sarsi:subj=á-kù-nì-līh3
Cook 1984: 181. This expression is based on the verb =līh ~ =lín- [imperf.] / =lìːn [perf.] 'to be' [Li 1930b: 26] plus the impersonal subject prefix ku and "thematic" ni [Cook 1984: 171]. Probably the main meaningful element here is à, which can be analyzed as the postposition construction obj=á '(to be) like obj' or '(to be) on obj' [Cook 1984: 187]. I.e., 'smth. is good' = literally '(it) is like smth.' or '(it) is on smth.'.
Cf. some examples: "This soup is good", "This bannock is good" [Nanagusja 1996b: 69], "This tea is good" [Nanagusja 1996b: 80], "It's a good sign" [Nanagusja 1996b: 102].
NUMBER:35
WORD:green
Hupa:=cʰow1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 737; Golla 1996: 12. Polysemy: 'to be blue / to be green' (apparently also 'to be yellow' q.v.).
Distinct from =lo-y 'to be green, unripe (of berries, fruits)' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 764; Golla 1996: 42].
Mattole:
Not attested. Cf. the verb =cʰow 'to be blue / to be yellow (q.v.)' [Li 1930: 10, 110], which apparently also denotes 'to be green'.
Bear River dialect: not attested.
Kato:=cʰoː1
Goddard 1912: 28; Curtis 1924: 203. Verbal root with polysemy: 'to be blue / to be green' - explicit gloss in [Curtis 1924]. Glossed by Goddard as 'to be blue' only, but the phrase ƛʼoːh ɬ=cʰoː, translated by Goddard as "blue grass", also points to the meaning 'green'.
Taldash Galice:
Not attested.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:kʼ=tʼun qʰi-ti-l-tʼan-i2
Kari 2007: 320; Kari 1977: 254.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:kʼ=tʼun qʰi-ti-l-tʼan-i2
Kari 2007: 320; Kari 1977: 254.
Inland Tanaina:kʼ=tʼun qʰi-ti-l-tʼan-i2
Kari 2007: 320; Kari 1977: 254. In [Wassillie 1979: 46], quoted as kʼ=tʼun qʰi-l-tʼan-i.
Iliamna Tanaina:kʼ=tʼun qʰi-ti-l-tʼan-i2
Kari 2007: 320; Kari 1977: 254.
TFN_NOTES:
Literally 'a leaf-like one' and 'a grass-like one' with possr=tʼun 'leaf' q.v. and kʼ=čʰan - a reduced form of Upper Inlet kʼǝ=cʰan, Inland, Iliamna kʼǝ=čʰan, Outer Inlet, Seldovia kʼǝ=n=čʰan 'grass' [Kari 2007: 53]. Initial kʼ(ǝ)= is the indefinite possessive pronoun.
Central Ahtena:ƛʼoʁ qʼe-l-cʰiːn-i4
Kari 1990: 364, 529; Kari & Buck 1975: 104; Smelcer 2010: 60.
In [Kari 1990; Smelcer 2010], glossed simply as 'green'; in [Kari & Buck 1975: 104], specified as 'dark green'. Literally 'a grass-like one' with ƛʼoʁ 'grass' [Kari 1990: 364].
Dogrib:ĩ́=tʼõ̀ làːnì2
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 54, 172. Literally 'leaf-like' with ĩ́=tʼõ̀ 'leaf' q.v. and the adverb làːnì 'like' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 67]. Plain ĩ́=tʼõ̀ or ĩ́=tʼõ̀-ã́ 'leaf' can also be used as the noun-like adjective 'green' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 54].
North Slavey (Hare):ʔĩ̀=tʼṍ-ʔ2
Rice 1978: 34, 142. A noun-like adjective with polysemy: 'leaf / flower / cabbage, lettuce, vegetables / green (adj.)'.
Tanacross:t=è=l=ƛêːʒ ~ t=è=l=ƛéːc5
Arnold et al. 2009: 137; Holton 2000: 178, 348; Brean & Milanowski 1979: 22; McRoy 1973: 16. Verbal stem =l=ƛéːc with polysemy: 'to be green / to be blue'. Initial t= is the adjectival/gender exponent [Holton 2000: 237 ff.]. The variant =l=ƛêːʒ is nominalized < *=l=ƛéːc-V̀.
In [Shinen 1958: 18], the expression čʼetʰaʔakʼelcʰin is quoted for 'green', to be read as analytic čʼè=tʼã̌ː-ʔ kʼè=ʔe=l=cʰĩ̀ː 'it resembles a leaf' with čʼè=tʼã̌ː-ʔ 'leaf' q.v. (initial čʼè= is the indefinite possessive pronoun) and the verb =l=cʰĩ̀ː 'to resemble' [Arnold et al. 2009: 165].
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):te=l=tθʰoː1
Milanowski, p.c.; Milanowski 2009: 72. Polysemy: 'green / yellow / brown' (specified by Milanowski as "part of the broad spectrum of brown"). Nominalized verbal form: 'it is brown'.
Scottie Creek: xaʔkaːy tenĩh=ƛʼɯ̃̂ː 'green', a specification of the basic color term tinĩh=ƛʼɯ̃̂ː 'blue' [John 1997: 32]. Cf. tat=s̬ãy 'black' > hàʔkaːy tat=s̬ãy 'brown' [John 1997: 32], containing the same element xaʔkaːy in a different transcription.
Lower Tanana (Minto):=l=tθʰʊx1
Kari 1994: 314, 413; Tuttle 2009: 233. Verb with polysemy: 'to be yellow / tan / brown / blonde / green'. Paradigm: =l=tθʰʊx [neuter imperf.] / =l=tθʰux [transitional imperf.] / =l=tθʰuk [transitional perf.].
Central Carrier:=l=ƛʼʌz6
Poser 1998/2013: 745, 1223, 1261; Poser 2011a: 105; Antoine et al. 1974: 311. Verbal stem: 'to be green'. Cf. the example: "He made his snowshoes green" [Poser 1998/2013: 138].
Distinct from the verb =tʼeh 'to be unripe, green' [Poser 1998/2013: 148, 745] and the noun-like adjective tʼeh 'rare (of meat)' [Poser 1998/2013: 475].
Koyukon:=l=ƛʰuχ1
Jetté & Jones 2000: 586. Verbal stem, also functions as the noun-like adjective ƛʰuʁ-ǝʔ. In [Jetté & Jones 2000: 586], glossed as 'to be yellow, tan, brown, olive-green, be the color of a smoke-tanned skin', but actually with polysemy: 'to be yellow / to be green' as follows from Jetté's note "the Ten'a are not particular in distinguishing colors, and commonly express a light green as 'yellow', and a dark green as 'black'" [Jetté & Jones 2000: 648] and the example "shiny green grass in lakes" [Jetté & Jones 2000: 605].
There is also a rare verb =l=cʰuχ 'to be yellow / to be green' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 648], which represents a cognate of =l=ƛʰuχ, having been borrowed from a neighboring lect.
Degexit'an:χǝnoːɬyaːl-χǝqʼǝy7
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 55. Literally 'plant-like' with χǝ=noː=ɬ=yaː-l 'plant' (which literally means 'that which is growing' with =yoː-n̥ [neuter imperf.] / =yaː-ɬ [progressive imperf.] 'to grow' [Kari 1976: 64]).
Sarsi:=s=čɒ̄š8
Li 1930b: 25; Cook 1984: 166. Verb with polysemy: 'to be dark blue / to be green'. Cf. some examples: "green leaves", "green beads", "green jacket" [Nanagusja 1996b: 188].
Sapir & Golla 2001: 736; Golla 1996: 43; Golla 1996a: 385. In [Golla 1996], these forms are quoted as cʰi=wu-ŋʔ ~ =cʰi=wu-nʔ. Compound of the root =cʰeː ~ =cʰi 'head' (q.v.) and =waʔ 'body hair, fur' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 792; Golla 1996: 43]. It is stated in [Golla 1964: 110] that the synchronic Hupa root is =waʔ (not =waː-ʔ with the izafet exponent), cf. the full form possr=cʰi=waʔ-n-eʔ, quoted in [Golla 1996a: 385]. Thus =waŋʔ ~ =wanʔ in the compounds for 'head hair' apparently originate from *=waʔnʔ with the cluster simplification. The final *-n-iʔ (> -ŋʔ ~ -nʔ ~ -n-eʔ) contains an old N-suffix with the synchronic izafet exponent -eʔ.
Mattole:possr=cʰiʔ=kˈaʔ1
Li 1930: 126. Synchronically, can be analyzed as =kˈaʔ or =kˈa-ʔ. Compound of possr=cʰiʔ 'head' q.v. and possr=ɣˈa(-)ʔ 'fur' [Li 1930: 126]. For ɣ instead of k see [Li 1930: 9].
Bear River dialect: possr=si(ː)=ɣaʔ 'head hair' [Goddard 1929: 317].
Kato:possr=siːʔ=kaʔ1
Goddard 1909: 144 No. 6; Curtis 1924: 201. Compound of possr=siːʔ 'head' q.v. and possr=kaʔ 'hair, fur' [Goddard 1912: 22].
Taldash Galice:possr=si-ʔ2
Hoijer 1973: 59; Landar 1977: 294. Polysemy: 'head / head hair'. Transcribed by Landar as =sʸiː-ʔ. In compounds, the form siː- is used [Hoijer 1973: 59].
The old root for 'hair' is retained in several synchronic variants:
3) =ka(ʔ) in the compound possr=taː=ka(-)ʔ 'beard, moustache' [Hoijer 1973: 55; Landar 1977: 294] (lit. 'mouth hair' with =taː- 'mouth' q.v.).
Upper Inlet Tanaina:cʰi=ʁu1
Kari 2007: 87, 351; Kari 1977: 96. Apparently, can be used without obligatory possessor prefixes. The possessed form is possr=cʰi=ʁu.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:čʼix3
Kari 2007: 87, 351; Kari 1977: 96. Apparently, can be used without obligatory possessor prefixes. The possessed form is possr=čʼix-ʔa.
Inland Tanaina:cʰi=ʁu1
Kari 2007: 87, 351; Kari 1977: 96; Wassillie 1979: 47. Apparently, can be used without obligatory possessor prefixes. The possessed form is possr=cʰi=ʁu.
Iliamna Tanaina:cʰi=ʁu1
Kari 2007: 87, 351; Kari 1977: 96. Apparently, can be used without obligatory possessor prefixes. The possessed form is possr=cʰi=ʁu.
TFN_NOTES:
The old term cʰi=ʁu 'head hair' is retained in all the Tanaina dialects except for Outer Inlet; literally 'head's hair' with cʰi 'head' q.v. and possr=ʁu 'body hair, fur; pelt' (all dialects; applied to both humans and animals) [Kari 2007: 13, 87].
Outer Inlet čʼix is etymologically unclear (so-called "elite replacement"). It is proposed in [Kari 1996: 61] that čʼix 'head hair' represents the same root as the Common Tanaina word čʼix '?' in the expression for 'glare ice, clear ice': Upper Inlet tʰǝn cʼis-a, Outer Inlet & Iliamna tʰǝn čʼix-ʔa, Inland tʰǝn čʼix-a, literally 'čʼix of ice' with tʰǝn 'ice' [Kari 2007: 130].
Central Ahtena:possr=cʰi=ʁa-ʔ1
Kari 1990: 208, 531; Kari & Buck 1975: 60; Smelcer 2010: 44.
Western Ahtena: possr=cʰi=ʁa-ʔ [Kari 1990: 208, 531; Kari & Buck 1975: 60; Smelcer 2010: 44].
Mentasta Ahtena:possr=cʰi=ʁa-ʔ1
Kari 1990: 208, 531; Kari & Buck 1975: 60; Smelcer 2010: 44.
AHT_NOTES:
According to [Kari 1990: 208], the non-possessed form cʰi=ʁaː can also be used. Literally 'head hair' with cʰi 'head' q.v. and possr=ʁa-ʔ 'body hair, fur' [Kari 1990: 208; Kari & Buck 1975: 60; Smelcer 2010: 44].
Distinct from yuːcʼ, quoted in [Kari 1990: 443] with the gloss 'hair', but without additional comments (not present in other dictionaries as a separate entry). The cognate verb seems to be more common: =t=yuːcʼ 'to be hairy, furry, fuzzy, have hair, whiskers' [Kari 1990: 443].
Dogrib:possr=kʰʷì=ɣà1
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 44, 173. The non-possessed form is also allowed: kʰʷì=ɣá [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 65]. Apparently this compound only denotes human head hair, cf. the examples: "Braid your hair!" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 16], "Nowadays, a lot of women keep their hair short" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 19], "Your hair curls nicely" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 29], "I have already combed my hair" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 58], "If people are sad, we cut their hair" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 108]. Literally 'head's fur' with =kʰʷì 'head' q.v. and the generic term possr=ɣà 'hair, fur' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 27].
North Slavey (Hare):possr=fí=ɣá-ʔ1
Rice 1978: 60, 143. Literally 'head's hair' with possr=fí-ʔ 'head' q.v. and the generic term possr=ɣá-ʔ 'hair, fur' [Rice 1978: 60; Hoijer 1956: 222].
Tanacross:possr=tθʰìː=x̬á-ʔ1
Arnold et al. 2009: 140; Brean & Milanowski 1979: 24; McRoy 1973: 7; Shinen 1958: 3. Meaning 'head hair', literally 'hair of head' with possr=x̬á-ʔ '(human/animal) hair, fur' [Arnold et al. 2009: 128, 140; Holton 2000: 344] and possr=tθʰí-ʔ 'head' q.v.
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):possr=tθʰiːʔ=xa-ʔ1
Milanowski 2009: 26, 70, 75. Meaning 'head hair', literally 'xa of head'. The noun =xa- is not documented outside of this collocation. The noun possr=tθʰiː-ʔ 'head' can be used in the meaning 'head hair' in some contexts, cf. the example "She combs her hair (=tθʰiː-) every day" [Milanowski 2009: 94].
Kari 1994: 129, 415; Tuttle 2009: 96. Literally 'head's hair' < possr=tθʰi-ʔ 'head' (q.v.) plus generic possr=ɣʌ-ʔ with polysemy: 'hair / fur / feathers' [Kari 1994: 129].
Central Carrier:possr=c̪ʰi=ɣa-ʔ1
Poser 1998/2013: 505, 747; Poser 2011a: 107; Antoine et al. 1974: 49, 312. Literally 'head's hair' < possr=c̪ʰi 'head' (q.v.) plus generic possr=ɣa 'fur, hair' [Poser 1998/2013: 158; Antoine et al. 1974: 23].
Koyukon:ƛʰuː=χ1
Jetté & Jones 2000: 584, 923; Jones 1978: 76. Alienable possession; possessed: possr=ƛʰuː=ʁ-ǝʔ ~ possr=ƛʰiː=ʁoː-ʔ. Meaning 'head hair'. The synchronic root ƛʰuːχ (possr=ƛʰuːʁ-ǝʔ) is the result of contraction and reanalysis of the more rarely used compound possr=ƛʰiː=ʁoː-ʔ, literally 'head's hair' with possr=ʁoː-ʔ 'fur, body hair' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 249].
Degexit'an:possr=tθʰeː=ʁ ~ possr=tθʰeː=ʁoː1
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 33; Chapman 1914: 223. Meaning 'head hair'. The synchronic root =tθʰeːʁ [Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 33] is the result of contraction and reanalysis of the compound possr=tθʰeː=ʁoː-(ʔ) quoted for the archaic language in [Chapman 1914: 223] and also for the Kuskokwim dialect in [Kari 1978: 33]. Literally possr=tθʰeː=ʁoː-(ʔ) means 'head's hair' with possr=ʁoː-ʔ 'fur, hair' [Chapman 1914: 223].
Sapir & Golla 2001: 761; Golla 1996: 43. Polysemy: 'hand / finger'. The synchronic root is =laʔ (not *=laː-ʔ with the izafet exponent), cf. the compound possr=laʔ-kʰʸeʔcʼ 'fingernail' q.v. and see [Golla 1964: 117].
The meaning 'arm' is expressed by the descriptive formation possr=kʼʸaːŋʔay (< *=kʼʸa=win=ʔa-i), literally 'it extends away from smb.' [Golla 1996: 5; Golla 1996a: 384; Golla 1970: 220] (cf. the similar structure of the stem for 'head' q.v.). The old root for 'arm' could be qan, attested in possr=qan-tʰaq 'shoulders', if < 'between (=tʰaq) arms' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 754].
Cf. a separate term for 'forearm, forearm muscles': possr=cʼeːlʔ < *=cʼeːl-iʔ [Sapir & Golla 2001: 738; Golla 1996: 5].
Mattole:ˈpossr=laʔ1
Li 1930: 132. Polysemy: 'hand / finger'. Cf. also compounds like possr=laʔ=ɕʰˈeʔs 'fingernail', possr=laʔ=ɕʰˈowi 'thumb' (ɕʰˈowi is the augmentative morpheme, see notes on 'big'), possr=laʔ=yˈaːx 'other four fingers' [Li 1930: 132] (yaːx means 'small (subst.)', see notes on 'small'), possr=laʔ-kʷˈoːxʷ-eʔ 'wrist' [Li 1930: 130] (with =kʷoːxʷ- 'joint'). The place of accent (ˈpossr=laʔ instead of expected **possr=lˈaʔ) should point to an old nasal prefix, i.e., *possr=n=laʔ, see [Li 1930: 50].
Distinct from possr=kaːn-eʔ 'arm' [Li 1930: 129].
Bear River dialect: possr=laʔ 'hand' [Goddard 1929: 317]. Distinct from possr=ɣan-e 'arm' [Goddard 1929: 313].
Distinct from kanih (i.e., possr=kan-iʔ) 'arm' [Curtis 1924: 201] and possr=kʰʷan-eʔ 'arm, shoulder' [Goddard 1912: 22; Goddard 1909: 160 No. 7]. It seems that Curtis' =kan- and Goddard' =kʰʷan- represent two different terms.
Taldash Galice:possr=laʔ1
Hoijer 1973: 61; Hoijer 1956: 223; Landar 1977: 294. Synchronically, either =laʔ or =la-ʔ.
Distinct from possr=kaːn-eʔ with polysemy: 'arm / branch of tree' [Hoijer 1973: 56]. In [Hoijer 1956: 223; Landar 1977: 294], quoted as kʷaːn-iʔ or kʷaːn-e - a contraction from the possessed form *wa=kʷaːn-eʔ 'his/its arm' (see [Hoijer 1966: 321]).
Upper Inlet Tanaina:possr=qun-a2
Kari 2007: 91, 351; Kari 1977: 101.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:possr=qun-ʔa2
Kari 2007: 91, 351; Kari 1977: 101.
Inland Tanaina:possr=qun-a2
Kari 2007: 91, 351; Kari 1977: 101; Wassillie 1979: 48.
Iliamna Tanaina:possr=qun-ʔa2
Kari 2007: 91, 351; Kari 1977: 101.
TFN_NOTES:
Polysemy: 'hand / arm' in all the dialects. The old root for 'hand' is retained as lu in compounds like lu-qǝn 'fingernail' q.v., literally 'hand's claw', etc., see [Kari 2007: 92].
Central Ahtena:possr=la-ʔ1
Kari 1990: 270, 531; Kari & Buck 1975: 65; Smelcer 2010: 47.
Western Ahtena: possr=la-ʔ [Kari 1990: 270, 531; Kari & Buck 1975: 65; Smelcer 2010: 47].
Mentasta Ahtena:possr=la-ʔ1
Kari 1990: 270, 531; Kari & Buck 1975: 65; Smelcer 2010: 47.
AHT_NOTES:
Polysemy: 'hand / branch'.
Distinct from the term for 'arm': possr=qaːn-eʔ (all dialects; Mentasta possr=qaːn-ʔ) [Kari 1990: 190, 479; Kari & Buck 1975: 65; Smelcer 2010: 47] < Proto-Ahtena *possr=qaːnʔ-eʔ, cf. the variant qaːnʔ- used in compounds.
Dogrib:possr=ĩ́=là ~ possr=í=là ~ possr=là1
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 42, 173. The most archaic form is probably =ĩ́=là with the nasal gender prefix.
Distinct from possr=kõ̀ː 'arm' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 41, 141].
North Slavey (Hare):possr=ĩ̀=lá-ʔ1
Rice 1978: 71, 143; Hoijer 1956: 222. As first element of compounds, the variant là- is used.
Distinct from possr=kón-éʔ 'arm / front legs of animals' [Rice 1978: 57, 116].
Tanacross:possr=ìn=ɬ̬á-ʔ1
Arnold et al. 2009: 141; Holton 2000: 344; Brean & Milanowski 1979: 25; McRoy 1973: 9. For the old polysemy: 'hand / branch', see notes on 'bark'.
Distinct from possr=káːn-ʔ 'arm' [Arnold et al. 2009: 46; Holton 2000: 340].
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):possr=ɬa-ʔ ~ possr=ɬaː-ʔ1
Milanowski 2009: 20, 23. For morphology, cf. the compounds possr=laː-cʼoː-ʔ 'three middle fingers' or possr=laː-kãy-ʔ 'fingernail' [Milanowski 2009: 19].
Distinct from possr=kaːnː-ʔ 'arm' [Milanowski 2009: 67].
Kari 1994: 183, 415; Tuttle 2009: 96. Polysemy: 'hand / foreleg of quadruped / branch' (the meaning 'branch' is attested in compounds). Variant lʌ- in compounds.
Distinct from possr=kʌn-aʔ 'arm' [Kari 1994: 113, 363].
Central Carrier:possr=la1
Poser 1998/2013: 232, 748; Poser 2011a: 107; Antoine et al. 1974: 32, 312. Polysemy: 'hand / forepaw, paw'.
Distinct from possr=kan 'arm; foreleg (of animal)' [Poser 1998/2013: 156; Antoine et al. 1974: 22].
Koyukon:possr=loː-ʔ1
Jetté & Jones 2000: 404, 925; Jones 1978: 76. Polysemy: 'hand / limb / forefoot of quadruped / branch' (the meaning 'branch' only in compounds). Synchronously rather =loː-ʔ than =loːʔ, cf. lo- as the first element of compounds.
Distinct from two words for 'arm': possr=qoːn-ǝʔ 'arm / foreleg / frontquarter of quadruped:' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 212, 847; Jones 1978: 12], possr=ƛʼiːl-ǝʔ 'arm / forearm / foreleg of quadruped / sleeve' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 594, 847; Jones 1978: 12].
Degexit'an:possr=loː-ʔ1
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 35; Chapman 1914: 217. The variant loː- is attested in compounds.
Distinct from possr=qoːn 'arm' [Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 34; Chapman 1914: 230].
Distinct from possr=kàn-ɒ̀ʔ 'arm' [Hoijer & Joël 1963: 70].
NUMBER:38
WORD:head
Hupa:possr=eː=ta=ʔa-y1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 730; Golla 1996: 44. Literally 'it extends against smb.' < *=eː=ti=ʔa-i with the verbal root =ʔaː 'to extend'.
The old term possr=cʰeː 'head' is obsolete [Sapir & Golla 2001: 735] (specified as "a dialect form, generally replaced by possr=eː=ta=ʔa-y"). This root is also retained in compounds like possr=cʰeː-kʰʸiŋʔ 'back of the head' (literally ' base of head') [Sapir & Golla 2001: 735; Golla 1996: 44] or adverbial formations like naː-cʰeː 'ahead, first, preceding' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 735; Golla 1996: 3]. The shortened variant cʰi is attested as the first element of some compounds [Sapir & Golla 2001: 736], particularly cʰi=wa-ŋʔ 'hair' q.v.
Mattole:possr=cʰiʔ2
Li 1930: 131. The synchronic Mattole root is =cʰiʔ (not possr=cʰi-ʔ with the izafet exponent), as follows from the compounds possr=cʰiʔ-gˈaʔ 'head hair' q.v. [Li 1930: 126] (=ɣaʔ 'fur' with plosivization ɣ > g) and possr=siʔ-ɬˈoːɣ-eʔ 'brain' [Li 1930: 133] (with sporadic fricativization cʰ > s, for which see [Li 1930: 9 f.]).
Bear River dialect: possr=cʰiʔ ~ possr=siʔ 'head' [Goddard 1929: 317].
Kato:possr=siːʔ2
Goddard 1912: 22; Curtis 1924: 201.
Taldash Galice:possr=si-ʔ2
Hoijer 1973: 59; Hoijer 1956: 223; Landar 1977: 294. Polysemy: 'head / head hair'. Transcribed in [Hoijer 1956: 223] as =siː-ʔ; in [Landar 1977] as =sʸiː-ʔ. In compounds, the form siː- is used [Hoijer 1973: 59].
Upper Inlet Tanaina:possr=kʰi=n=ʔi1
Kari 2007: 87, 351; Kari 1977: 96. A descriptive formation, which is translated in [Kari 1996: 61] as 'tip that extends'. Apparently =ʔi is a contraction from *=y=ʔu-i, i.e. the classificatory verb =ʔu 'to handle a single compact object' [Tenenbaum 1978: 132, 135; Holton et al. 2004: 40; Boraas 2010: 65, 118] with the imperfective exponent =z= (regularly > Upper Inlet =y=) or =n=ʔi < *=nǝ=ʔu-i with the imperfective exponent =nǝ=; in both cases final *-i is the relative nominalizer -(ʔ)i / -(y)i [Kari 2007: 329; Boraas 2010: 17, 144]. Initial kʰi= is thus the directional prefix 'at or to the end of something', for which see [Tenenbaum 1978: 180] (Inland dialect) and [Boraas 2010: 129] (Outer Inlet dialect).
For similar occasional contractions of nominalized *=ʔu-i, cf. the forms for 'heart', 'sun' q.v. and, e.g., the expression for 'fence' (literally 'linear extends in circle'): Upper Inlet χniqʰana=y=ʔi-y, Outer Inlet naqʰana=z=ʔu-yi, Inland niqʰana=z=ʔi-y [Kari 2007: 224].
Outer Inlet Tanaina:possr=n=ʁ=ʔi1
Kari 2007: 87, 351; Kari 1977: 96. An unclear descriptive formation. In [Kari 1996: 61], explained as "meaning uncertain, from 'linear extends'", which implies the same contracted nominalized form *=ʔu-i as in Upper Inlet Tanaina q.v., but with the perfective exponent =ʁ=.
Inland Tanaina:possr=cʰi ~ possr=n=cʰi2
Kari 2007: 87, 351. In [Kari 1977: 96; Wassillie 1979: 49], only the variant possr=cʰi is quoted.
Iliamna Tanaina:possr=n=cʰi2
Kari 2007: 87, 351. In [Kari 1977: 96], quoted as possr=cʰi.
TFN_NOTES:
The old root for 'head' is still in use in Inland & Iliamna (=cʰi). In Upper Inlet and Outer Inlet, it was superseded with different descriptive formations, although cʰi 'head' is retained everywhere in such compounds as Upper Inlet cʰi=ʁu 'head hair' q.v., etc., and as the Outer Inlet verbal incorporated morpheme cʰi= ~ čʰi= 'head' [Boraas 2010: 125].
Central Ahtena:possr=cʰe-ʔ2
Kari 1990: 391, 533; Kari & Buck 1975: 60; Smelcer 2010: 44.
Western Ahtena: possr=cʰe-ʔ [Kari 1990: 391, 533; Kari & Buck 1975: 60; Smelcer 2010: 44].
Mentasta Ahtena:possr=cʰe-ʔ2
Kari 1990: 391, 533; Kari & Buck 1975: 60; Smelcer 2010: 44.
AHT_NOTES:
In compounds, the variant cʰi- is attested.
Dogrib:possr=kʰʷì2
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 44, 175.
North Slavey (Hare):possr=fí-ʔ2
Rice 1978: 54, 143; Hoijer 1956: 222. Hoijer adduces the 19th c. archaic variant {=kfwi}. As first element of compounds, the variant fí- is used.
Tanacross:possr=tθʰí-ʔ2
Arnold et al. 2009: 143; Holton 2000: 344; Brean & Milanowski 1979: 23; McRoy 1973: 7; Shinen 1958: 3.
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):possr=tθʰiː-ʔ2
Milanowski 2009: 26, 70, 75. Synchronously, =tθʰiː-ʔ with the izafet suffix (cf. the compounds like tθʰiː-šoː 'hat') and fossilized =tθʰiːʔ (cf. the compounds like tθʰiːʔ-cʰoː 'dragonfly').
Kari 1994: 312, 417. Variant tθʰi- is attested in compounds.
Central Carrier:possr=c̪ʰi2
Poser 1998/2013: 505, 751; Poser 2011a: 109; Antoine et al. 1974: 49, 312.
Koyukon:possr=ƛʰiː-ʔ2
Jetté & Jones 2000: 570, 926; Jones 1978: 78. Variants ƛʰiː- ~ ƛʰaː- ~ ƛʰuː- are attested in compounds.
Degexit'an:possr=tθʰeː-ʔ2
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 32; Chapman 1914: 220. The variants tθʰeː-, tθʰǝ- are attested in compounds.
Sarsi:possr=cʰì-ʔ2
Hoijer & Joël 1963: 69; Hoijer 1956: 222.
NUMBER:39
WORD:hear
Hupa:=cʼeh1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 739; Golla 1996: 45; Golla 1970: 261. According to available sources, there are three ways in Hupa to express the semantics of hearing:
1) The enclitic -cʼeh (< *-cʼih) or -cʼiw (< *-cʼih-i), attached to the clause, which denotes the perceived act, see [Golla 1970: 261; Golla 1996: 45; Sapir & Golla 2001: 739]. The generic meaning of -cʼeh / -cʼiw is perception in general (e.g., feeling, taste), but the usual and most frequent meaning is simply 'hearing'. Examples for -cʼeh / -cʼiw 'it is heard' or 'subj hears it' are numerous, e.g.: "I hear (cʼeh) that bird crying; I feel (cʼeh) the salmon have come; I hear (cʼeh) Salmon's Grandmother crying" [Golla 1984: 15, 16], "And a kissing noise she heard (cʼeh)" [Goddard 1904: 111], "I hear (cʼeh) two (people)" [Goddard 1904: 170], "I heard (cʼiw) them get up" [Golla 1984: 13, 14], "Let me see what it was that I heard (cʼiw) doing something" [Golla 1984: 19, 22], "in that direction inside it someone was singing there she heard (cʼiw)" [Golla 1984: 28], "he sang along there she heard (cʼiw)" [Golla 1984: 29], "And he walking along a creek heard (cʼiw)" [Goddard 1904: 111], "he heard croak (cʼiw)" [Goddard 1904: 112], "it sounded he heard (cʼiw)" [Goddard 1904: 144], etc.
2) the adverb ʔaŋ-kʸaʔ ~ ʔuŋ-kʸaʔ (also plain kʸaʔ), glossed as 'seeing (with surprise), noticing (with surprise), unexpectedly, surprisingly, lo and behold!' [Golla 1996: 57, 93; Sapir & Golla 2001: 752], which is applied to the act of perception (seeing, hearing, etc.). Normally ʔaŋ-kʸaʔ ~ ʔuŋ-kʸaʔ is used together with the word that denotes perception. Examples for ʔaŋ-kʸaʔ ~ ʔuŋ-kʸaʔ with -cʼeh / -cʼiw in the meaning 'subj hears (it)' are numerous. E.g.: "Then I heard (ʔan-kʸaʔ ... cʼeh) something making a cracking noise going" [Golla 1984: 11], "Then in the middle of the night she heard (ʔan-kʸaʔ ... cʼeh) something uncertain making a noise" [Golla 1984: 18, 22], "As she was coming down the ridge towards Xonsahding, she heard (ʔan-kʸaʔ ... cʼeh) people crying downstream from Xonsahding. She thought, 'I hear (cʼeh) something there; let me go down there'" [Golla 1984: 21, 23], "Inside it she heard (ʔan=kʸaʔ ... cʼeh) someone was singing" [Golla 1984: 28], "He was surprised to hear (ʔun-kʸaʔ ... cʼeh) someone splitting logs" [Goddard 1904: 108], "As he walked along he heard (ʔun-kʸaʔ ... cʼiw) laughing" [Goddard 1904: 109], "In a hollow tree she heard (ʔun-kʸaʔ ... cʼeh) a baby rolling around" [Goddard 1904: 157], "when they came they heard (ʔun=kʸaʔ ... cʼeh) talking" [Goddard 1904: 170], etc. Sometimes the second element of the collocation ʔaŋ-kʸaʔ ... -cʼeh / -cʼiw can be omitted; two examples are found with the semantics of hearing: "Then she heard (ʔun-kʸaʔ) a baby crying" [Goddard 1904: 135], "he heard (ʔun-kʸaʔ) here he came running" [Goddard 1904: 360].
3) Finally, there is a predicative way to express the semantics of hearing with the verbs =ya 'to move' or =ʔa 'to extend': the descriptive collocations possr=eːtaʔay =ya 'smb.'s head moves to' [Golla 1996: 45] and possr=eːtaʔay =ʔa 'smb.'s head extends to'. Four examples have been found: "it was midnight and he heard (possr=eːtaʔay =ya) a jingling noise he heard (cʼiw)" [Goddard 1904: 293], "She heard (possr=eːtaʔay =ya) no longer the sound of the games and the talk of the Kixunai" [Goddard 1904: 306, 308], "She did not hear (possr=eːtaʔay =ya) their talk" [Goddard 1904: 307, 309], "Then she heard (possr=eːtaʔay =ʔa) (something)" [Golla 1984: 28].
The statistical analysis clearly shows that the most common way to express the semantics of hearing is the enclitic -cʼeh / -cʼiw.
The suppletive nasal counterpart =cʼaʔn (< perfective *cʼa-n-ʔ-i) functions as an inflected verb with the passive meaning 'to sound, be heard' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 737; Golla 1996: 45].
Cf. also a separate verb =niʍ 'to hear about smth.' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 779; Golla 1996: 45].
Mattole:=nix ~ =ni-t3
Li 1930: 96. Imperfective stem; the perfective stem is =ni-t.
Two Mattole verbs for 'to hear' are quoted in [Li 1930]: =nix and =cʼeh. The semantic difference between them is unclear (both are illustrated with examples like "I hear it"). We treat these verbs as synonyms.
Bear River dialect: not attested.
Kato:=cʼe-ɣ1
Goddard 1912: 73. The imperfective stems are =cʼeh < *=cʼex and =cʼeɣ < *=cʼex-i. The suppletive perfective stem is =cʼan ~ =cʰaŋ ~ =saŋ [Goddard 1912: 73; Goddard 1909: 106 No. 9]. Polysemy: 'to hear / to listen'. Note the sporadic shift cʼ > cʰ in the perfective stem.
Taldash Galice:=cʼeː1
Hoijer 1973: 70 No. 269; Hoijer 1956: 223. Suppletive paradigm: =cʼeː [imperf.] / =cʼã-ʔ < *=cʼan-ʔ [perf.]. The separate verb for 'to listen' is based on the n-root: =cʼãː [imperf.] / =cʼã-ʔ [imperf.], see [Hoijer 1973: 70 No. 268].
Upper Inlet Tanaina:
Not attested.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:
Not attested properly. The only known context is: "we heard news from home", where the verb =nǝx is used [Boraas 2010: 47].
Inland Tanaina:=nǝx3
Wassillie 1979: 49, 59. Cf. also the examples: "they heard him" [Tenenbaum 1978: 148], "I heard something" [Tenenbaum 1978: 190]. Polysemy: 'to hear / to listen'. Paradigm: =nǝx [imperf.] / =nik [perf.].
Iliamna Tanaina:
Not attested.
TFN_NOTES:
Cf. =nǝx [imperf.] / =nǝk [perf.] 'to hear' in the examples from Lovick's fieldwork (dialect is not specified): "I can't hear him" [Lovick 2005: 68 ex. 3.3a-b], "I heard them" [Lovick 2005: 185 ex. 5.21b].
Central Ahtena:=cʼaːn1
Kari 1990: 399, 534.
Lower Ahtena: =cʼaːn [Kari 1990: 399, 534].
Western Ahtena: =cʼaːn [Kari 1990: 399, 534].
Mentasta Ahtena:=cʼãː1
Kari 1990: 399, 534.
AHT_NOTES:
In [Kari 1990: 399], the momentaneous aspect sub-paradigm =cʼiː-s [imperf.] / =cʼaːn [perf.] is quoted with the polysemy: 'to hear / to listen / to understand', whereas the suppletive neutral aspect imperfect =cʼaq [imperf.] is glossed specifically 'to listen to, understand'. Examples for the meaning 'to hear' (momentaneous aspect): "I heard you", "he heard a shot", "he didn't hear anything", etc.
There is also a second expression for 'to hear' (all dialects?): obj=e=ta=t=0=niːkʸ with two examples "we hear a noise up above", "I heard a noise" [Kari 1990: 309, 534]. This contains the very common and productive verbal root =niː-s [imperf.] / =niːkʸ [perf.], which, among its other meanings, expresses various aspects of feeling and sensing [Kari 1990: 306 ff.].
Dogrib:=kʼʷṍ2
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 26, 125, 175. Polysemy: 'to hear / to hear of / to listen / to understand'. Cf. the examples for 'to hear': "We hear him" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 26], "Yesterday I heard my younger brother talking to his little brother" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 125].
North Slavey (Hare):=h=ʔõ̀ ~ =h=wʼõ̀2
Rice 1978: 380, 409, 510. Paradigm: =h=ʔĩ̀ ~ =h=wʼĩ̀ [imperf.] / =h=ʔõ̀ ~ =h=wʼõ̀ [perf.]. In [Hoijer 1956: 222], the 19th c. archaic variant =kʼʷey is quoted, which apparently corresponds to modern =h=ʔĩ̀ ~ =h=wʼĩ̀. Polysemy: 'to hear / to hear about / to listen'. Cf. the examples: "I heard him singing", "Listen to me", "You shouldn't listen to histories" [Rice 1978: 380], "we heard crying", "we heard voices" [Rice 1989: 182], "I was sure I heard a knock on the door" [Rice 1989: 362], "we heard someone singing in there" [Rice 1989: 1226], "I can't hear well" [Rice 1989: 1101], "I heard you talking outside" [Rice 1989: 1231], "did you hear where he is living?" [Rice 1989: 1245], "I heard that she sings well" [Rice 1989: 1247], "I heard that he is living in Colville Lake" [Rice 1989: 1251].
Distinct from the rarely used verb =ƛì which is glossed as 'to hear the sound of' [Rice 1978: 423] with the following examples: "I heard someone coming", "I heard her singing" [Rice 1978: 246], "I hear the grouse dancing" [Rice 1978: 202].
Tanacross:=tθʼèk1
Arnold et al. 2009: 144; Holton 2000: 350; Shinen 1958: 43. Polysemy: 'to hear / to listen'; for 'to listen', cf. the example "I'm listening to something" [Holton 2000: 253].
A second verb for 'to listen' is cíː-...-ʔàh [Arnold et al. 2009: 166], literally 'to extend the inner ear' with possr=cìː 'inner ear, hearing' [Arnold et al. 2009: 106; Holton 2000: 344].
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):=tθʼak1
Milanowski 2009: 98, 100. Polysemy: 'to hear / to listen'.
Lower Tanana (Minto):=ɬ=tθʼʌn̥2
Kari 1994: 319, 417; Tuttle 2009: 98, 120. Polysemy: 'to hear / to listen / to understand'. Paradigm: =ɬ=tθʼʌn̥ [imperf.] / =ɬ=tθʼʌn-ʔ [perf.] / =ɬ=tθʼi-ɬ [fut.].
Distinct from the more rare and specific verb obj=...=nik glossed with polysemy: 'to hear the sound of obj. / to make a noise' [Kari 1994: 216].
Distinct from =tθʼǝk 'to listen / to understand' [Kari 1994: 320, 431].
Central Carrier:=c̪ʼo2
Poser 1998/2013: 752, 1223, 1263; Antoine et al. 1974: 312. Cf. the cognate verb =ɬ=c̪ʼai 'to listen' [Poser 1998/2013: 792, 1263; Antoine et al. 1974: 317].
Koyukon:=ƛʼoːn̥2
Jetté & Jones 2000: 610, 927; Jones 1978: 78. Polysemy: 'to hear / to listen / to understand / to obey'. Paradigm: =ƛʼoːn̥ [neuter imperf.] / =ƛʼoːn-ʔ [neuter perf.] / =ƛʼiː-y̥ (< *=ƛʼoːn-y) [momentaneous imperf.] / =ƛʼoːn̥ [momentaneous perf.]. The suppletive perfect form of the customary aspect: =ƛʼiːq [customary perf.] (quoted as =ƛʼiːk in [Jetté & Jones 2000]; this looks like a typo).
Distinct from =niːk [perf.] 'to feel' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 449], and in particular 'to hear obj (sound, animal calling), become aware of obj by hearing' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 452].
Degexit'an:=tθʼoːn̥2
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1976: 59; Chapman 1914: 220. Paradigm: =tθʼoːn̥ [imperf.] / =tθʼoːn-ʔ [perf.] / =tθʼeː-ɬ [fut.]. Polysemy: 'to hear / to listen'. Cf. some examples: "I heard the bell", "I hear an echo", "What do you hear?" [Taff et al. 2007], "All at once she heard (=tθʼoːn̥) - it was the name of her husband. She listened (=tθʼoːn̥), and looked at him" [Chapman 1914: 127], "A young man is paddling along. As if expecting to hear (=tθʼeː-ɬ) something, he turns his head and listens (=tθʼoːn̥)" [Chapman 1914: 157].
The suppletive imperfective stem =tθʼǝq 'to hear' [Kari 1976: 59] has only been found either with negation: "She doesn't hear", "I can't hear Beth", "Something isn't hearing anything" [Taff et al. 2007], "Still she weeps, and does not hear him" [Chapman 1914: 127]; or in the positive meaning 'to know, understand': "He understands Degexit'an" [Taff et al. 2007].
Li 1930: 11, 50, 57 sub No. 20, 110. The imperfective stems are =cʼeh < *=cʼex and =cʼiɣ < *=cʼex-i [Li 1930: 23]; the suppletive perfective stem is =cʼaːʔn < *=cʼan-ʔ-i (for such a morphological pattern see [Li 1930: 29]). The separate verb for 'to listen' is based on the n-variant: imperfective =cʼaŋ < *=cʼan and =cʼaːn < *=cʼan-i, perfective =cʼaːʔn < *=cʼan-ʔ-i [Li 1930: 110].
Kato:=cʼan ~ =cʰaŋ ~ =saŋ2
Perfective.
Taldash Galice:=cʼã-ʔ2
Perfective.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:
Outer Inlet Tanaina:
Inland Tanaina:=nik3
Perfective.
Iliamna Tanaina:
Central Ahtena:
Mentasta Ahtena:
Dogrib:
North Slavey (Hare):
Tanacross:
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):
Lower Tanana (Minto):
Central Carrier:
Koyukon:
Degexit'an:
Sarsi:
NUMBER:39
WORD:hear
Hupa:
Mattole:=cʼaːʔn2
Perfective.
Kato:
Taldash Galice:
Upper Inlet Tanaina:
Outer Inlet Tanaina:
Inland Tanaina:
Iliamna Tanaina:
Central Ahtena:
Mentasta Ahtena:
Dogrib:
North Slavey (Hare):
Tanacross:
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):
Lower Tanana (Minto):
Central Carrier:
Koyukon:
Degexit'an:
Sarsi:
NUMBER:40
WORD:heart
Hupa:possr=kʰʸan-sa-ʔaː-n1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 757; Golla 1996: 45. In [Golla 1996], quoted with -kʰʸun-. Literally 'the round object that lies smb.’s insides' with the anatomical term possr=kʰʸaːn-eʔ ~ =kʰʸaːn-e ~ =kʰʸaŋ~ =kʰʸuŋ 'insides, entrails, abdomen, stomach' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 757; Golla 1996: 50] and the classificatory verb =ʔaː-n 'to handle a round object' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 731; Golla 1977: 357].
Mattole:possr=čˈiːy-eʔ2
Li 1930: 131.
Bear River dialect: possr=čiʔ-e 'heart' [Goddard 1929: 317].
Kato:possr=čiː-ʔ2
Goddard 1912: 22; Curtis 1924: 201.
Taldash Galice:possr=siːy-eʔ2
Hoijer 1973: 59; Hoijer 1956: 223. The contracted form possr=siː-ʔ is also attested in some constructions [Hoijer 1973: 68 No. 181, 73 No. 331]. The variant siːʔ- is also used in the compound siːʔ-cʼiːteʔ 'sorrow' (literally 'sick hearted') [Hoijer 1973: 59] - a result of secondary reanalysis of the possessed form.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:possr=kʰu-y-ʔi-n1
Kari 2007: 95, 351; Kari 1977: 104.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:possr=kʰu-z-ʔi-n1
Kari 2007: 95, 351; Kari 1977: 104. Two Outer Inlet terms are quoted as synonyms by Kari.
Inland Tanaina:possr=kʰu-z-ʔi-n1
Kari 2007: 95, 351; Kari 1977: 104; Wassillie 1979: 49.
Both possr=kʰu-z-ʔi-n (with regular z > Upper Inlet y) and possr=iqʼti are secondary descriptive formations, applied to humans as well as animals, although not to fish (see [Kari 2007: 25] for specific descriptive terms for 'fish heart').
=kʰu-z-ʔi-n (Upper Inlet -y- for -z-) is explained in [Kari 2007: 95] as 'object inside', but a more accurate literal translation is 'it lies in smb.'s abdomen/entrails'. As follows from the Ahtena form q.v., =ʔi-n represents a contraction from *=ʔu-n-i, i.e., the classificatory verb =ʔu, perfective =ʔu-n 'to handle a single compact object' [Tenenbaum 1978: 132, 135; Holton et al. 2004: 40; Boraas 2010: 65, 118] with the imperfective exponent =z= and the relative nominalizer -(ʔ)i / -(y)i [Kari 2007: 329; Boraas 2010: 17, 144]. For similar contractions of nominalized *=ʔu-i cf. notes on Upper Inlet Tanaina 'head'.
Initial kʰu= is the reduced variant of possr=kʰun 'inner abdomen'; cf. kʰu-qʰiltu-yi 'pregnant animal (= it has one in its abdomen)' and so on, see notes on 'belly' for details.
In turn, =iqʼ-t-i literally means 'on the inside' [Kari 2007: 95] or 'within the inside' with possr=iqʼ 'smth's inside' [Kari 2007: 95; Tenenbaum 1978: 206; Boraas 2010: 27], final -i can be the postposition -i 'in obj, inside obj, as inside a enclosure or closed container' [Tenenbaum 1978: 206; Boraas 2010: 27], medial -t- is unclear. It should be noted that =iqʼti looks like a more archaic word for 'heart', because it is used in the expressions for 'heartbeat' and 'heart attack', attested in all the dialects [Kari 2007: 95, 100].
The old root 'heart' is retained as Tanaina čay in Upper Inlet kʼ=cay-a, Outer Inlet kʼ=čay-ʔa 'inner basket (part of fish trap)', lit. 'smbd.'s heart' (with possessive kʼ= and the izafet exponent -a) [Kari 2007: 218].
Central Ahtena:possr=kʰʸ=i=z=ʔaː-n-i1
Kari 1990: 71, 534; Kari & Buck 1975: 68; Smelcer 2010: 49.
Western Ahtena: possr=kʰʸ=e=z=ʔaː-n-i [Kari 1990: 71, 534; Kari & Buck 1975: 68; Smelcer 2010: 49].
Mentasta Ahtena:possr=ceːy-ʔ2
Kari 1990: 170, 534; Kari & Buck 1975: 68; Smelcer 2010: 49.
AHT_NOTES:
The old root =ceːy- 'heart' is retained with the polysemy: 'heart / inner basket of fish trap' in Mentasta, but only with the latter meaning in other dialects. Reduced variants ce- / ci- are also attested in some compounds, like possr=ce-nases 'fat around the heart' (all dialects) etc.
In the non-Mentasta dialects, 'heart' is expressed by the new formation =kʰʸ=i=z=ʔaː-n-i, literally 'compact object lies in smb.'s abdomen' from the very productive classificatory verb =ʔaː-n [imperf.] / =ʔa-ʔ [perf.] 'to handle a compact object' [Kari 1990: 70] and kʰʸa= - the reduced incorporated variant of kʰʸaːn 'viscera, abdomen' [Kari 1990: 110].
Dogrib:possr=cèː2
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 40, 175.
North Slavey (Hare):possr=cié-ʔ2
Rice 1978: 52, 144; Hoijer 1956: 222.
Tanacross:possr=cěːy-ʔ2
Arnold et al. 2009: 144; Holton 2000: 344; Brean & Milanowski 1979: 23; McRoy 1973: 10; Shinen 1958: 3.
Kari 1994: 98, 418. The expression for 'chest', possr=ay̥-tǝ-ɣʌn-aʔ q.v., is based on this root. The shortened morpheme a- 'chest / heart' is used as the first element of various compounds [Kari 1994: 97].
In the Chena dialect: possr=cay-aʔ 'heart' [Kari 1994: 98].
Central Carrier:possr=ci2
Poser 1998/2013: 152, 752; Poser 2011a: 110; Antoine et al. 1974: 21, 312.
Koyukon:possr=caːy-ǝʔ2
Jetté & Jones 2000: 165, 927; Jones 1978: 78.
Degexit'an:possr=yeːqʼǝ-d3
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 36; Chapman 1914: 210. Cannot be separated from Tanaina possr=iqʼ-t-i 'heart', literally 'within the inside', although the presumed stem =yeːqʼ 'inside' is not attested in Degexit'an; final -d is apparently the same locative suffix as Koyukon -t.
Sarsi:
No expressions for 'heart' are documented reliably. In [Hoijer 1956: 222], the unclear form possr=càɣàní 'heart' is quoted, not confirmed by other sources.
NUMBER:40
WORD:heart
Hupa:
Mattole:
Kato:
Taldash Galice:
Upper Inlet Tanaina:
Outer Inlet Tanaina:possr=iqʼti3
Kari 2007: 95, 351; Kari 1977: 104.
Inland Tanaina:
Iliamna Tanaina:
Central Ahtena:
Mentasta Ahtena:
Dogrib:
North Slavey (Hare):
Tanacross:
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):
Lower Tanana (Minto):
Central Carrier:
Koyukon:
Degexit'an:
Sarsi:
NUMBER:41
WORD:horn
Hupa:possr=te-ʔ1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 748; Golla 1996: 47. The synchronic Hupa root is =teː, not =teʔ, cf. the allomorph teː in the compound kʼʸi-teː-kʰʸinʔ 'spoon', literally 'smth.'s horn's base' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 748; Golla 1996: 89; Golla 1964: 111].
Mattole:possr=te-ʔ1
Li 1930: 127. Morphologically =te-ʔ or =teʔ.
Bear River dialect: possr=te(-)ʔ 'horn' [Goddard 1929: 317].
Kato:possr=te-ʔ1
Goddard 1912: 22. Morphologically =te-ʔ or =teʔ.
Taldash Galice:possr=teʔ1
Hoijer 1973: 54; Hoijer 1956: 223; Landar 1977: 295. Morphologically, either =te-ʔ or =teʔ. Polysemy: 'horn / horn-like root of tree'.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:possr=ta1
Kari 2007: 13, 352; Kari 1977: 31.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:possr=ta ~ possr=tay-a1
Kari 2007: 13, 352; Kari 1977: 31. The form possr=ta is modern, whereas possr=tay-a with the izafet exponent -a (rather to be read possr=tay-ʔa?) originates from the 19th century sources.
Kari 1994: 59, 420; Tuttle 2009: 101. Variant ta- in compounds.
Central Carrier:possr=te1
Poser 1998/2013: 121, 757; Poser 2011a: 113; Antoine et al. 1974: 18, 313.
Koyukon:possr=taː-ʔ1
Jetté & Jones 2000: 107, 931; Jones 1978: 81. The variant taː- is used in compounds.
Degexit'an:vǝ=tǝq-ǝy ~ possr=ʁʊ=tǝq-ǝy2
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 6. The form vǝ=tǝq-ǝy is from [Taff et al. 2007], =ʁʊ=tǝq-ǝy is from [Kari 1978], both for 'horn(s)'; cf. koː=ʁ=tǝq-ǝy 'antlers' [Taff et al. 2007]. The forms contain the postposition =tǝq 'up' and the nominalizer -ǝy; thus vǝ=tǝq-ǝy literally means 'that which is on top'.
Li 1930: 133. The same morpheme is also present in the prefixal possessive pronoun ši- 'my' [Li 1930: 133], 1 sg. subject verbal prefix -š- [Li 1930: 68], 1 sg. object verbal prefix -ši- [Li 1930: 64].
Bear River dialect: ši 'I' [Goddard 1929: 317].
Kato:šiː1
Goddard 1912: 33. The same morpheme is found in the prefixal possessive pronoun š- < *ši- 'my' [Goddard 1912: 21].
Taldash Galice:šiː1
Hoijer 1956: 223. The same morpheme in the prefixal possessive pronoun š-< *ši- 'my' [Hoijer 1966: 322], 1 sg. subject verbal prefix -š- [Hoijer 1966: 325], 1 sg. indirect & direct object verbal prefix -š- [Hoijer 1966: 323, 324].
Upper Inlet Tanaina:si1
Kari 2007: 65; Kari 1977: 80.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:ši1
Kari 2007: 65; Kari 1977: 80.
Inland Tanaina:ši1
Kari 2007: 65; Kari 1977: 80.
Iliamna Tanaina:ši1
Kari 2007: 65; Kari 1977: 80.
TFN_NOTES:
The same morpheme is present in the prefixal possessive pronoun š- (Upper Inlet s-) 'my', 1 sg. subject verbal prefix -(ǝ)š-, 1 sg. object verbal prefix -š(ǝ)- [Kari 2007: 65; Lovick 2005: 41, 47; Tenenbaum 1978: 58, 71; Boraas 2010: 105, 123].
Central Ahtena:siː1
Kari 1990: 35, 461.
Lower Ahtena: siː [Kari 1990: 35, 461].
Western Ahtena: siː [Kari 1990: 35, 461].
Mentasta Ahtena:siː1
Kari 1990: 35, 461.
AHT_NOTES:
The same morpheme is present in the prefixal possessive pronoun s- 'my', 1 sg. subject verbal prefix -es-, 1 sg. object verbal prefix -s- [Kari 1990: 35, 57, 447].
Dogrib:sĩ́1
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 90; Marinakis et al. 2007: 40. Nasalization of ĩ is due to influence on the part of nĩ́ 'thou' q.v.
The same morpheme is present in the prefixal possessive pronoun sé- 'my', 1st sg. subject verbal prefix -éh-, 1st sg. object verbal prefix -sé- [Saxon & Siemens 1996: xiii; Marinakis et al. 2007: 39, 114, 128; Coleman 1976: 21].
North Slavey (Hare):sè-nĩ̀1
Rice 1989: 253; Hoijer 1956: 222. Final -nĩ is a suffix modifying personal and some other pronouns.
Tanacross:šìh ~ šìː1
Arnold et al. 2009: 150; Holton 2000: 278. The same morpheme is present in the prefixal possessive pronoun š- 'my', 1st sg. subject verbal prefix -ìh-, 1st sg. object verbal prefix -š- [Holton 2000: 145, 199, 248].
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):šin1
Milanowski 2009: 82. The same morpheme is present in the prefixal possessive pronoun š- / s- 'my' [Milanowski 2009: 9].
Northway: šiː 'I' [Milanowski 2007: 15].
Scottie Creek: šiː 'I' [John 1997: 5].
Lower Tanana (Minto):si1
Kari 1994: 346. The same morpheme is present in the prefixal possessive pronoun s- 'my', 1st sg. subject verbal prefix -ǝs-, 1st sg. object verbal prefix -s- [Kari 1994: 346-347].
Central Carrier:si1
Poser 1998/2013: 431; Antoine et al. 1974: 351. The same morpheme is present in the prefixal possessive pronoun s- 'my', 1st sg. subject verbal prefix -ʌs-, 1st sg. object verbal prefix -sʌ- [Antoine et al. 1974: 349-350].
Koyukon:siː1
Jetté & Jones 2000: 728, 805; Jones & Kwaraceius 1997: 4. The emphatic variant siː-n 'I' is seldom used. The same morpheme is present in the prefixal possessive pronoun sǝ- 'my', 1st sg. subject verbal prefix -ǝs-, 1st sg. object verbal prefix -sǝ- [Jetté & Jones 2000: 805].
Degexit'an:seː1
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 25. The same morpheme is present in the prefixal possessive pronoun sǝ- 'my' [Kari 1978: 25].
Sarsi:sí-ní1
Cook 1984: 62; Hoijer 1956: 222. Final -ní is a morpheme common for all independent personal and some other pronouns; it can be analyzed as the archaic human singulative exponent -n + the relativizer -i. The same morpheme is present in the prefixal possessive pronoun si- 'my', 1st sg. subject verbal prefix -s-, 1st sg. object verbal prefix -si- [Cook 1984: 64, 193, 197].
NUMBER:43
WORD:kill
Hupa:=weː1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 793; Golla 1996: 53; Golla 1970: 152, 163 et passim. Used with sg. obj. (object may be human or animal). The heavy perfective root variant is =weː-n < *=weː-n-i.
Distinct from =waːn < *=waːn-i 'to kill', used with pl. obj. [Sapir & Golla 2001: 793; Golla 1996: 53; Golla 1970: 152, 163] (object may be human or animal).
Mattole:=keː1
Li 1930: 98. Imperfective stem; the perfective stem is =kiː-n ~ =ke-ʔ. Used with both sg. and pl. obj.
Bear River dialect: =kan, =kaŋ, =kin 'to kill' [Goddard 1929: 317], used with both sg. and pl. obj.
Kato:=kiː-ŋ1
Goddard 1912: 77. Perfective stem. Apparently used with sg. obj. only.
Distinct from =kaŋ 'to kill', used with pl. obj. [Goddard 1912: 76].
Taldash Galice:=keː1
Hoijer 1973: 67; Hoijer 1956: 223. Paradigm: =keː [imperf.] / =kĩː < *=kiː-n [perf.]. Used with sg. animated obj.
Distinct from the verb =taɬ ~ =teɬ [imperf.] / =teʔɬ < *=teɬ-ʔ [perf.], glossed as 'to slaughter, annihilate, kill' [Hoijer 1973: 64]. This could be the default term for 'to kill' with pl. obj.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:
Not attested. Cf. the verb čʰi=obj=ɬ=ʔik / čʰi=obj=ɬ=ʔis 'to kill (pl. obj.)" [Lovick 2005: 44 ex. 2.5b, 77 ex. 3.17, 100 ex. 3.40d, 117 ex. 4.4] ("one who kills them [= brown bears]", "Cold killed them all", "It would kill them right away", "it [= spear] killed them [= bears]").
Outer Inlet Tanaina:čʰi=obj=t=ɬ=yuq2
Boraas 2010: 20, 42. In Boraas' examples, applied only to sg. obj.
Distinct from =ʁun 'to kill (pl. obj.)', whose main meaning is the generic 'to make' [Boraas 2010: 63].
Inland Tanaina:čʰi=obj=t=ɬ=yuq2
Wassillie 1979: 55; Holton et al. 2004: 39. Used with sg. subj. Cf. the examples: "They killed that moose" [Wassillie 1979: 55], "They killed him" [Holton et al. 2004: 25], "the wolf killed him (man)", "he (man) killed him (man)" [Tenenbaum 1978: 69]. But occasionally with pl. subj.: "they killed them" [Tenenbaum 1978: 77]. Initial čʰi= is the action prefix 'play; death, illness; worry' [Tenenbaum 1978: 189].
Iliamna Tanaina:
Not attested.
TFN_NOTES:
=ɬ=yuq is the causative stem from the polite verb =yuq 'to die' q.v.; the generic meaning of the latter is 'to happen'.
Central Ahtena:=z=ɬ=ʁeː1
Kari 1990: 213, 542.
Lower Ahtena: =z=ɬ=ʁeː [Kari 1990: 213, 542].
Western Ahtena: =z=ɬ=ʁeː [Kari 1990: 213, 542].
Mentasta Ahtena:=z=ɬ=ʁeː1
Kari 1990: 213, 542. Polysemy: 'to kill / to beat up'.
AHT_NOTES:
Paradigm: =ʁeː [imperf.] / =ʁeː-n [perf.], see additional forms in [Kari 1990: 680]. Used with sg. obj. Note the unexpected polysemy in Mentasta.
Distinct from =ʁaːn with polysemy: 'to make (pl. obj.) / to kill (pl. obj.)' [Kari 1990: 204, 542] - apparently this is the generic verb for 'to make (pl. obj.)' in Ahtena.
Dogrib:=wí3
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 32, 181. =ʍí after the prefixal =h=. Paradigm: =wí [imperf.] / =wó [perf.]. Used with sg. obj. This seems to be the basic root for 'to kill', cf. examples like "The wicked old woman is going to kill me", "We've killed the giant owl" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 32].
Distinct from =dé [imperf.] / =dè [perf.] 'to kill (pl. obj.)' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 32, 181]. Cf. the examples: "Sometimes hunters kill them" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 32], "We are going to kill lots of fur-bearing animals" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 103].
The expressions for 'to die' q.v. contain the same roots: =wí (sg. subj.) and =té (pl. subj.).
Distinct from the collocation possr=wèː =cʰĩ́ 'to kill' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 46, 132], literally 'to make death (wèː) to smb'.
North Slavey (Hare):=h=xiè1
Rice 1978: 375, 435, 514; Hoijer 1956: 222. Paradigm: =h=xiè [imperf.] / =h=xĩ̀ [perf.]. Used with sg. obj. Apparently this is the most frequently used verb for 'to die', cf. the found examples: "He killed a man" [Rice 1978: 375], "s/he killed him/her" [Rice 1989: 67], "I killed it" [Rice 1989: 792], "the dog drowned (lit. water killed the dog)" [Rice 1989: 1216], "I drowned the pup (lit. I caused water to kill the pup)" [Rice 1989: 1304].
With pl. obj., the verb =ɣõ̀ 'to kill' is used [Rice 1978: 387, 436], cf. the examples: "I killed them" [Rice 1989: 792], "That dog killed many people" [Rice 1978: 387], "both people drowned (lit. water killed two persons)" [Rice 1989: 264].
Distinct from the rarely used =h=wì 'to kill (sg. & pl. obj)' [Rice 1978: 294, 478], a causative from =wì 'to die' q.v. with the h-transitivizer [Rice 1989: 454]. The only attested example is: "I killed the dog" [Rice 1978: 294].
Distinct from =fì 'to kill someone by medicine or witchcraft' [Rice 1978: 371, 427].
Tanacross:=h=xẽː1
Arnold et al. 2009: 158; Holton 2000: 160, 350; Shinen 1958: 45. Used with sg. obj. Applicable to both humans and animals.
With pl. obj., the verb =x̬ãː 'to kill' is used [Arnold et al. 2009: 158; Holton 2000: 160].
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):=h=xĩː1
Milanowski 2009: 62, 99. Paradigm: =xĩː [imperf.] / =xãː [perf.] / =xeː-k [customary] / =xeh [fut.]. Used with both sg. and pl. obj.
Lower Tanana (Minto):=ɬ=ɣa1
Kari 1994: 121, 426; Tuttle 2009: 111. Paradigm: =ɬ=ɣa [imperf.] / =ɬ=ɣa-n̥ [perf.] / =ɬ=ɣa-ɬ [fut.] / =ɬ=ɣa-y̥ [customary]. Used with sg. obj.
Distinct from =ɣʌn̥ [imperf.] / =ɣʌn-ʔ [perf.] / =ɣʌ-y̥ [customary] with polysemy: 'to make / to build / to kill', used with pl. obj. [Kari 1994: 131, 426].
Central Carrier:=ɬ=ɣe1
Poser 1998/2013: 773, 1220, 1254; Poser 2011a: 120; Antoine et al. 1974: 315. Paradigm: =ɬ=ɣe [imperf.] / =ɬ=ɣi [perf.] / =ɬ=ɣe-ɬ [fut.]. Used with sg. & dual. obj. (with both humans and animals as a subject and as an object).
Distinct from =ɣan 'to kill', used with pl. obj. [Poser 1998/2013: 774, 1220, 1253; Poser 2011a: 120; Antoine et al. 1974: 315].
Koyukon:=ɬ=ʁaː1
Jetté & Jones 2000: 227, 940; Jones 1978: 89. Paradigm: =ɬ=ʁaː [imperf.] / =ɬ=ʁaː-n̥ [perf.]. Polysemy: 'to kill / to beat, injury'. Used with sg. obj. As noted in [Jetté & Jones 2000], =ɬ=ʁaː is "mainly used with human objects, but can be used for killing animals".
For animal sg. object, the verb =laː with polysemy: 'to catch / to kill' seems preferable [Jetté & Jones 2000: 378] (used in the conversive aspect). We treat both as synonyms.
Distinct from =ʁoːn̥ with polysemy: 'to make / to kill / to beat up', used with pl. human/animal obj. [Jetté & Jones 2000: 252] (cf. the example for the meaning 'to make': "he made them (boots, sleds)").
Degexit'an:=ʁaː1
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1976: 24; Chapman 1914: 223. Paradigm: =ʁaː [imperf.] / =ʁaː-n̥ [perf.]. Used with sg. obj.
The second candidate is the verb =laː-χ [imperf.] / =laː-n̥ [imperf.] 'to kill' [Kari 1976: 33; Chapman 1914: 217]; it is glossed as 'to kill (sg.)' in [Kari 1976], but actually seems applicable to both sg. and pl. obj.
According to modern data in [Taff et al. 2007], =ʁaː is applicable to both humans and animals as its object, cf. some examples: "He killed something", "The boy killed the moose" [Taff et al. 2007], "he killed her" [Chapman 1914: 122], "they (almost) killed him" [Chapman 1914: 181], "kill (ye) me!" [Chapman 1914: 196]. It seems that the second verb, =laː-χ / =laː-n̥, is missing from [Taff et al. 2007] at all.
On the contrary, browsing through [Chapman 1914] suggests that the object of =ʁaː is normally humans or mythical heroes. Whereas =laː- is applicable to ordinary animals. Cf. the attested examples: "outside his house, upon racks, he had piles of deer-skins and beaver-skins — so many did he kill" [Chapman 1914: 123], "'Remember how little game you killed (=laː-n̥) last spring. You might not be back for a long time', said she. [...] 'Because, when there was plenty of game near by, up the river, I could get (=laː-χ) them; but now that they are far away, I kill (=laː-χ) but few'. Then said his wife, 'Why is it that you get (=laː-χ) so few?'" [Chapman 1914: 125].
We treat =ʁaː and =laː- as synonyms.
Distinct from =ʁoːn̥ with polysemy: 'to make / to kill' used with pl. obj. [Kari 1976: 23; Chapman 1914: 223].
Sarsi:=s=xá1
Li 1930b: 17; Hoijer 1956: 223; Cook 1984: 58. Ablaut paradigm: =s=xá [imperf.] / =s=yí ~ =s=yí-n- [imperf.] (yi < *ɣi). Used with sg. & dual. obj.
Distinct from =ɣɒ́h ~ =ɣɒ́n- 'to kill' [Li 1930b: 17; Cook 1984: 58], used with pl. obj.
NUMBER:43
WORD:kill
Hupa:
Mattole:
Kato:
Taldash Galice:
Upper Inlet Tanaina:
Outer Inlet Tanaina:
Inland Tanaina:
Iliamna Tanaina:
Central Ahtena:
Mentasta Ahtena:
Dogrib:
North Slavey (Hare):
Tanacross:
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):
Lower Tanana (Minto):
Central Carrier:
Koyukon:=laː4
Jetté & Jones 2000: 378.
Degexit'an:=laː-χ4
Kari 1976: 33; Chapman 1914: 217.
Sarsi:=s=yí1
Perfective.
NUMBER:44
WORD:knee
Hupa:possr=qotʼ1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 756; Golla 1996: 53. Polysemy: 'knee / joint (anatomic)'. Apparently the same root is represented by the verb =qotʼ 'to bend (e.g., stick, rod); to set a snare' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 756; Golla 1996: 11, 87].
Mattole:possr=kʷoʔɬ1
Li 1930: 129. It is unclear whether the verb =kʷoʔ 'to stoop down (intrans.)' [Li 1930: 100] and the substantive =kʷoːxʷ- 'joint' (in the compounds possr=kʰeʔ-kʷˈoːxʷ-eʔ 'ankle', possr=laʔ-kʷˈoːxʷ-eʔ 'wrist' [Li 1930: 130] with the roots 'foot' and 'hand' respectively) are related to =kʷoʔɬ 'knee'.
Bear River dialect: possr=ɬkot ~ possr=kʰɣo 'knee' (both forms are corrupt), possr=koɬ 'top of knee' [Goddard 1929: 317].
It is unclear whether Upper Inlet =cʼǝs is related to =čʰiš with de-glottalized č instead of the etymologically expected **čʼ (regularly > Upper Inlet cʼ) or not.
The Proto-Tanaina root for 'knee' is retained as possr=qǝtʼ 'knee' in one of the subdialects of Upper Inlet.
Central Ahtena:possr=qoʔt1
Kari 1990: 199, 543; Kari & Buck 1975: 70; Smelcer 2010: 50.
Western Ahtena: possr=qotʼ [Kari 1990: 199, 543; Kari & Buck 1975: 70; Smelcer 2010: 50].
Mentasta Ahtena:possr=qot1
Kari 1990: 199, 543; Kari & Buck 1975: 70; Smelcer 2010: 50.
AHT_NOTES:
Proto-Ahtena *=qotʼ.
Dogrib:possr=éh=kò1
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 41, 182. Polysemy: 'joints of the body / shoulder / knee / elbow'. The first element =éh= is a desemanticized prefix, the same as in possr=éh=tà 'chin / beak, bill of a bird'. Plain kò is used in compounds and as the incorporated verbal morpheme, e.g., =kò=...=ʔá 'to kneel' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 77].
North Slavey (Hare):possr=kó-ʔ1
Rice 1978: 56, 148; Hoijer 1956: 222.
Tanacross:possr=kót1
Arnold et al. 2009: 158; Holton 2000: 344; Brean & Milanowski 1979: 23; McRoy 1973: 9; Shinen 1958: 3.
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):possr=kot1
Milanowski 2009: 17, 70.
Northway: possr=kot 'knee' [Milanowski 2007: 11].
Scottie Creek: possr=kòt 'knee' [John 1997: 14].
Lower Tanana (Minto):possr=kʊt1
Kari 1994: 117, 427; Tuttle 2009: 112.
Central Carrier:possr=kʷʌt1
Poser 1998/2013: 161, 779; Poser 2011a: 122; Antoine et al. 1974: 25, 315. Polysemy: 'knee / leg bone (with marrow)'.
Koyukon:possr=qut1
Jetté & Jones 2000: 219, 941; Jones 1978: 90.
Differently in the Lower dialect, where possr=ƛʰuːq-ǝʔ 'knee' is used [Jetté & Jones 2000: 585].
Degexit'an:possr=cʰǝstoːqaːʔ4
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 37. Morphologically unclear.
Sarsi:possr=kut-ɒʔ1
Hoijer 1956: 222. No expressions for 'knee' in other sources.
NUMBER:44
WORD:knee
Hupa:
Mattole:
Kato:
Taldash Galice:
Upper Inlet Tanaina:possr=qǝtʼ1
Kari 2007: 94; Kari 1977: 107. Attested in the Talkeetna subdialect of Upper Inlet.
Distinct from =ʔaː 'to know how; to understand' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 730; Golla 1996: 54, 101].
Mattole:=cʼit1
Li 1930: 111. This is the heavy perfective stem, originating < *=cʼit-i; the light imperfective stem is =cʼih < *=cʼit [Li 1930: 20]. The only verb for 'to know' found in [Li 1930].
Bear River dialect: not attested.
Kato:
Not properly attested. Cf. the verb =cʰǝt 'to know' [Goddard 1912: 73], attested in the context "we didn't know him". This is probably the basic Kato verb for 'to know' (note the de-ejectivization cʰ < *cʼ).
Taldash Galice:=cʼit1
Hoijer 1973: 71. Polysemy: 'to know / to learn, come to know / to recognize'.
Distinct from =yãː, glossed as 'to be wise, know about (things)' [Hoijer 1973: 69].
Upper Inlet Tanaina:=ni2
Lovick 2005: 27 ex. 1.22b. An example: "I know her name too".
Distinct from the verb =yǝn (corresponds to Inland =zen), which is attested with the meaning 'to know, be aware' in the following example: "they knew that they had escaped" [Lovick 2005: 38 ex. 1.37].
Outer Inlet Tanaina:
Not attested.
Inland Tanaina:=ni2
Wassillie 1979: 56. Cf. the examples: "I know it", "I know it's that way" [Wassillie 1979: 56], "and that's how we'll know it's you" [Tenenbaum 1976 3: 63]. Polysemy: 'to know / to recognize / to be acquainted with', as follows from the additional instances: "he recognized her", "I know them" [Tenenbaum 1978: 150]. The perfective form is apparently =ni-t, as follows from the example "he found me out (i.e. that I was there)" [Tenenbaum 1978: 150].
Distinct from the verb =zǝn, which is attested with the meaning 'to know, be aware' in the following examples: "he knew he was almost there" [Tenenbaum 1976 1: 3], "we don't know the reason it disappeared" [Tenenbaum 1976 3: 37], "he is one who knows more than me" [Tenenbaum 1978: 206]. The generic meaning of =zǝn / =zin, however, seems to be 'to want' [Wassillie 1979: 108].
Western Ahtena: ta=obj=t=i=0=nǝ-s [Kari 1990: 309, 543].
Mentasta Ahtena:ta=obj=t=i=0=nǝ-s2
Kari 1990: 309, 543.
AHT_NOTES:
Cf. the examples in [Kari 1990: 309]: "He knows myths", "I know the news", "I know that (information) about it". The expression is based on the very common polysemantic verbal root =niː-s, =nǝ-s [imperf.] / =niːkʸ [perf.], which, among its other meanings, expresses various aspects of feeling and sensing [Kari 1990: 306 ff.].
The expression for 'to know, notice, be aware of, be acquainted with' contains the same root: obj-ʔeɬ=tʰ=nǝs (the postposition =ʔeɬ means 'with').
Distinct from =l=ten / =ɬ=ten 'to know how, know a skill' [Kari 1990: 149, 543].
Dogrib:=žṍ3
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 129, 182; Marinakis et al. 2007: 162. Innovative pronunciation: =zṍ; after the suffixal -h- realized as =šṍ ~ =sṍ. Glossed as 'to know, realize'.
North Slavey (Hare):=h=šõ̀3
Rice 1978: 273, 483, 514. Generic verb with the meaning 'to know'. Cf. the examples: "Do you know where the blanket is?", "I know that man", "I knew that he was sick", "I know that they are always late", "No one knew hew to fix it", "I knew that they were sick" [Rice 1978: 273], "Do you know who she's going to marry?" [Rice 1978: 377], "I know that Mary is living in Norman Wells" [Rice 1989: 19], "Do you know how to write your name?" [Rice 1978: 202], "the man I know" [Rice 1989: 19].
Without the h-transitivizer, the verb has the shape =yõ̀ [imperf.] / =yà [perf.] with the meaning 'to be wise' [Rice 1978: 483].
Tanacross:=t=ndéy̥2
Arnold et al. 2009: 159; Holton 2000: 350; Shinen 1958: 45. Imperfective stem. The perfective root variant =ndiːk is used in the negative stem cʼ=...=t=ndíːg 'do not know' [Arnold et al. 2009: 159].
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):=t=nay̥ ~ =t=nãy̥2
Milanowski 2009: 48, 99. Nasal fluctuation is unclear. Imperfective stem. The perfective root variant =ndiːk is used in the negative stem cʼ=...=t=ndiːk 'do not know' [Milanowski 2009: 49, 99]. Cf. the cognate verbs =nãy 'to believe', =l=nãy̥ 'to remember' [Milanowski 2009: 48].
Lower Tanana (Minto):=t=nǝy̥2
Kari 1994: 215, 216, 427; Tuttle 2009: 113. Glossed as 'to know, notice, realize, be aware of, be acquainted with; to know (information, song, story)'. Paradigm: =t=nǝy̥ [imperf., future] / =t=nik [perf.]. Apparently only imperf. =t=nǝy̥ is used for the positive meaning 'to know'. Cf. the negative stem ʼ=...=t=nik-ã 'do not know (information, song, story)' [Kari 1994: 216] with the perfective root variant.
Poser 1998/2013: 779, 1224, 1266; Poser 2011a: 123; Antoine et al. 1974: 315. Paradigm: =z̪ʌn [imperf.] / =z̪in [perf.]. Polysemy: 'to think / to know'. Cf. some examples for the generic meaning 'to know': "He says he knows you from long ago", "He knows how to make snowshoes", "He understands how a person feels when a relative dies", "He does not know how to write" [Antoine et al. 1974: 222], "That man doesn't know what shame is" [Antoine et al. 1974: 269].
Koyukon:=t=nǝy̥2
Jetté & Jones 2000: 450, 941; Jones 1978: 90. Imperfective stem with the general meaning 'to know', glossed as 'to know, be conscious of, be acquainted with obj'. The perfective root variant =t=niːk is used in the negative construction 'do not know' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 451]. The polysemantic verb =niːy̥ / =nǝy̥ /=niːk generally refers "to awareness or sensory perception" [Jetté & Jones 2000: 449].
Degexit'an:=nǝy̥2
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1976: 38; Chapman 1914: 214. Imperfective form. The perfective root variant =neːk is used in the negative construction 'do not know' [Taff et al. 2007; Chapman 1914: 214].
Sarsi:=nìh2
Li 1930b: 20; Cook 1984: 235. Glossed as 'to know, to be aware'. Paradigm: =nìh [imperf.] / =nìh ~ =nì-tʰ- [perf.]; final -tʰ- is the perfective exponent [Li 1930b: 11].
Sapir & Golla 2001: 789; Golla 1996: 56; Golla 1970: 220; Golla 1964: 112. In [Golla 1996: 56], quoted as possr=tʼuŋʔ. Applied to trees and plants. May denote a single leaf or several leaves. The synchronic root is rather tʼan (possr=tʼaŋʔ < *possr=tʼan-iʔ), cf. compounds like kʼʸi=nehs-tʼaːn (< *...-tʼaːn-i) 'tan oak', lit. 'its long leaves' and tʼaŋ-qʼ 'autumn' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 789]. On the contrary, the cognate verb kʼʸi=...=tʼaʔn (< =tʼanʔ-i) 'to come out (of leaves)' [Golla 1996: 56] is based on the possessed form.
Li 1930: 128. Originates from *=tʼanʔ. The synchronic root is tʼanʔ, not tʼan, cf. the cognate verb =tʼaːʔn (< *=tʼanʔ-i) 'to become ripe' [Li 1930: 92].
Bear River dialect: not attested.
Kato:
Not attested.
Taldash Galice:čʼa=tʼãʔ1
Hoijer 1973: 55. Synchronically, either =tʼãʔ or =tʼã-ʔ. Initial čʼa= is the indefinite possessive pronoun [Hoijer 1966: 322]. In [Hoijer 1956: 223], quoted as tʼãĩ 'leaf'.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:possr=tʼun1
Kari 2007: 47, 61, 353; Kari 1977: 75.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:possr=tʼun1
Kari 2007: 47, 61, 353; Kari 1977: 75.
Inland Tanaina:possr=tʼun1
Kari 2007: 47, 61, 353; Kari 1977: 75. In [Wassillie 1979: 58], quoted with the izafet exponent: possr=tʼun-a 'leaves'.
Iliamna Tanaina:possr=tʼun1
Kari 2007: 47, 61, 353; Kari 1977: 75.
TFN_NOTES:
Polysemy: 'leaf / small plant / young stage of woody plant' in all the dialects.
Central Ahtena:kʼʸe=tʼãːʔ1
Kari 1990: 340, 545; Kari & Buck 1975: 31; Smelcer 2010: 107.
Western Ahtena: kʼʸe=tʼaːnʔ [Kari 1990: 340, 545; Kari & Buck 1975: 31; Smelcer 2010: 107].
Mentasta Ahtena:kʼʸe=tʼaːnʔ1
Kari 1990: 340, 545; Kari & Buck 1975: 31; Smelcer 2010: 107.
AHT_NOTES:
Proto-Ahtena *tʼaːnʔ. Initial kʼʸe= is the indefinite possessive pronoun [Kari 1990: 35]; cf. the regular possessed form possr=tʼaːn-eʔ (*=tʼaːnʔ-eʔ). Note that the Mentasta form is explicitly written out as kʼʸe=tʼaːnʔ in [Kari & Buck 1975; Smelcer 2010] (although not in [Kari 1990]!) instead of expected **kʼʸe=tʼãːʔ. This suggests that Mentasta kʼʸe=tʼaːnʔ originates < *kʼʸe=tʼaːn-eʔ < *kʼʸe=tʼaːnʔ-eʔ with the izafet suffix -eʔ, whereas in other dialects, the suffixless form *kʼʸe=tʼaːnʔ-0 is observed.
Polysemy: 'leaf / leafy plant, shrub'. The expression for 'thin 2D' q.v. is based on this root.
Dogrib:ĩ́=tʼõ̀ ~ ĩ́=tʼõ̀-ã́1
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 54, 183. Initial ĩ́= looks like an indefinite possessive pronoun; final -á is the diminutive suffix [Marinakis et al. 2007: 152 f.]. Glossed as 'leaf, leafy stuff'. The expressions for 'green' q.v. are based on this word.
North Slavey (Hare):ʔĩ̀=tʼṍ-ʔ1
Rice 1978: 34, 149; Hoijer 1956: 222. Initial ʔĩ= is the indefinite possessive pronoun [Rice 1989: 211]. Polysemy: 'leaf / flower / cabbage, lettuce, vegetables / green (adj.)'.
Tanacross:possr=tʼã̌ːʔ1
Arnold et al. 2009: 162; Holton 2000: 344; Shinen 1958: 13. Polysemy: 'leaf / feather', see notes on 'feather'.
Milanowski 2009: 14, 77. Synchronously, should rather be analyzed as =tʼãːʔ than =tʼãː-ʔ, if the compound tʼãːʔ-nãy 'fox sparrow' [Milanowski 2009: 26] is related.
Sapir & Golla 2001: 786, 788; Golla 1996: 56; Golla 1970: 162. Polysemy: 'to lie / to lie down', used with sg. subj., applied to humans or animals. A classificatory verb with the generic meaning 'to handle living being'. Root variants: directional imperfective/perfective =tʰi-ʍ (< *=tʰeː-ʍ) / =tʰeː-n (< *=tʰeː-n-i), nondirectional imperfective/perfective =tʰeː / =tʰe-ʔ (< *=tʰi-ʔ < *=tʰeː-ʔ) [Golla 1977: 357].
Cf. the verb =tʰeːčʼ (< *=tʰeːčʼ-i) 'to lie, lie down (of humans and animals)' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 786; Golla 1996: 56; Golla 1970: 162], which is used with pl. subj.
Distinct from the verbs for 'to lie' used with inanimate subject: =ʔaː-n 'to handle a round object' (sg. subj.) and =laː 'to handle several objects' (pl. subj.) [Sapir & Golla 2001: 731, 761; Golla 1996a: 388].
Mattole:=tʰeː1
Li 1930: 29, 90. Polysemy: 'to lie / to lie down', apparently used with sg. subj. only. A classificatory verb with the generic meaning 'to handle living being'. The directional imperfective stem is =tʰi-x; the directional perfective stems are =tʰeːh ~ =tʰi-ŋ (both < *=tʰeː-n)and =tʰeː-n < *=tʰeː-n-i; the nondirectional imperfective/perfective stems are =tʰeː / =tʰe-ʔ. The variant =tʰeːn also functions as a synchronically separate verb 'to lie (said of a living or dead being)' [Li 1930: 90].
Expression for 'to lie (pl. subj.)' is unknown.
Bear River dialect: =tʰe- 'to lie (down)' [Goddard 1929: 317].
Kato:=tʰiː-n1
Goddard 1912: 71. Polysemy: 'to lie / to lie down', probably used with sg. subj. only. A classificatory verb with the generic meaning 'to handle living being'. The directional imperfective stem is =tʰǝ-š; the directional perfective stems is =tʰi-ŋ (< *=tʰiː-n)and =tʰiː-n (< *=tʰiː-n-i).
Taldash Galice:=tʰĩː1
Hoijer 1973: 65 No. 97; Hoijer 1966: 326; Hoijer 1956: 223. Polysemy: 'to lie / to lie down'. Used with animated sg. & pl. subj. The intransitive perfective stem of the classificatory verb =tʰa-š [imperf.] / =tʰĩː < *=tʰiː-n [perf.] 'to handle a living being' [Hoijer 1973: 65 No. 81-82].
Distinct from the verbs =cʼeʔ [perf.] 'to lie', used with animated dual. subj. [Hoijer 1973: 71].
Upper Inlet Tanaina:=tʰa-n1
Lovick 2005: 155 ex. 4.44c. "He [i.e., the Wolf] was just lying on his belly by him".
Outer Inlet Tanaina:=tʰa-n1
Boraas 2010: 66 f. Glossed as 'to lie down', but actually this is a classificatory verb with the generic meaning 'to handle a single living being' [Boraas 2010: 118]. For the paradigm see [Boraas 2010: 67]: =tʰa-š [imperf.] / =tʰa [imperf. continuative] / =tʰa-n [perf.].
Inland Tanaina:=tʰa-n1
Tenenbaum 1978: 140; Holton et al. 2004: 39. Polysemy: 'to lie / to lie down'. =tʰa-n is the perfective stem of the classificatory verb =tʰa-χ [imperf.] / =tʰa-n [perf.] 'to handle a single living being' (applied to humans, animals, and even toy animals such as dolls). Cf. the examples for the stative meaning of =tʰa-n: "an animate object lies e.g. sleeping" [Tenenbaum 1978: 123], "the baby is lying" [Tenenbaum 1978: 143]. The active meaning 'to lie down' is rather expressed by the imperfective =tʰa-χ ("I lie down customarily" [Tenenbaum 1978: 53], "Lie down!" [Tenenbaum 1978: 123]) or future =tʰa-ɬ ("I'll lie down" [Tenenbaum 1978: 105]).
The verb =tʰa-χ / =tʰa-n is applied to sg. or dual subj. (for dual, cf. the example "we (dual.) are lying down" [Tenenbaum 1978: 63]).
It is not clear how the idea of lying is expressed for pl. subj. One could expect the classificatory verb =taɬ [imperf.] / =taƛʼ [imperf.] / =tǝɬ [fut.] 'to handle plural objects / to go / to come / to fly' (see notes on 'to go'). The only attested example of 'to lie (pl. subj.)' is, however, qʰa=l=yu [Holton et al. 2004: 39], glossed as 'to lie prone', which consists of the incorporated qʰa= 'foot' [Tenenbaum 1978: 164] and the verb =yu 'to go (sg. & dual. subj.)' q.v.
Iliamna Tanaina:
Not attested.
Central Ahtena:=tʰeː-n1
Kari 1990: 328, 546.
Lower Ahtena: =tʰeː-n [Kari 1990: 328, 546].
Western Ahtena: =tʰeː-n [Kari 1990: 328, 546].
Mentasta Ahtena:=tʰeː-n1
Kari 1990: 328, 546.
AHT_NOTES:
Paradigm: =tʰeː-n [imperf.] / =tʰe-ʔ [imperf.], etc. Polysemy: 'to lie / to lie down'; used with animate sg. subj.
With animate pl. subj., the verbs =ɬ=tʰeːcʼ 'to lie (down)' [Kari 1990: 331] or =t=l=yaː 'to lie down' [Kari 1990: 268] are used.
Apparently =tʰeː-n is the basic verb for this meaning, applicable to humans and animals. Cf. also the verb cʼi=l=kʼʸetʼ (all dialects), glossed as 'to have body in outstretched position, be sprawled, be lying down resting' [Kari 1990: 126]; literally, this means 'to stretch the head' with the incorporated root cʼi 'head' q.v. and the verbal root =kʼʸetʼ 'to be stretched, taut' [Kari 1990: 125].
Dogrib:=tʰĩ́1
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 118. This is the classificatory verb 'to handle rigid object' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: viii]. Used with sg. subj. When applied to animates, manifests polysemy: 'to be located / to lie / to lie down / to sleep'.
The expression for 'to lie (pl. animate subj.)' is not documented, but apparently the verb =tʰé 'to be located / to sleep', used with pl. animate subj. [Saxon & Siemens 1996: ix, 118], also means 'to lie / to lie down'.
North Slavey (Hare):=t=tʰĩ̀1
Rice 1978: 284, 462, 516; Hoijer 1956: 222. This is the so-called classificatory verb 'to be in position', applicable to sg. animate subj. [Rice 1989: 781], thus with polysemy: 'to be in a certain position / to lie / to lie down / to sleep'.
The expression for 'to lie (pl. animate subj.)' is not documented. Cf. the verb =l=yà 'to sleep / to stand', applicable to pl. animate subj.
Tanacross:=l=tʼèy̥2
Arnold et al. 2009: 164. Glossed with polysemy: 'to lie / to lie down'. Applicable to humans and probably to animated subjects in general. For things, various classificatory verbs are used, as stated in [Arnold et al. 2009: 30]; see the whole list under 'to give'.
Distinct from specific verbs for 'to lie prone': =tʰẽː [sg. subj.] / =tʰèːc [pl. subj.], quoted in [Holton 2000: 160], not found in [Arnold et al. 2009].
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):
Not documented.
Lower Tanana (Minto):=tʰa-n̥1
Kari 1994: 229, 429; Tuttle 2009: 118. Paradigm: =tʰa-n̥ [neuter imperf.] / =tʰa-ʔ [neuter perf.] / =tʰa-y̥ [momentaneous imperf.] / =tʰa-n̥ [momentaneous perf.]. Polysemy: 'to lie / to lie down / to recline / to sleep'. Applicable to sg. anim. subj.
Distinct from =tʰac [neuter imperf.] / =tʰaʂ [momentaneous imperf.] / =tʰac [momentaneous perf.] 'to lie / to recline / to sleep' used with pl. anim. subj. [Kari 1994: 232].
Central Carrier:=tʰi1
Poser 1998/2013: 805, 1222, 1259; Poser 2011a: 128; Antoine et al. 1974: 317. Paradigm: =tʰi [imperf.] / =tʰe-ʔ [perf.]. Polysemy: 'to lie / to lie down / to sleep'. Used with sg. & dual. subj.
Distinct from =tʰez 'to lie / to lie down / to sleep', used with pl. subj. [Poser 1998/2013: 805, 1222, 1259].
Koyukon:=tʰaː-n̥1
Jetté & Jones 2000: 496, 946; Jones 1978: 94. Paradigm: =tʰaː-n̥ [neuter imperf.] / =tʰaː-ʔ [neuter perf.]. Polysemy: 'to lie / to lie down' (in the Upper dialect with additional polysemy: 'to lie / to lie down / to sleep'). Used with sg. & dual. subj. Actually =tʰaː- is the generic classificatory verb 'animate or living being is in position'.
Distinct from =cǝt with polysemy: 'to lie / to lie down / to sleep', used with pl. subj. [Jetté & Jones 2000: 173; Jones & Kwaraceius 1997: 88].
Distinct from =l=tʰǝn̥ 'to sleep' q.v.
Degexit'an:=tʰaː-n̥1
Taff et al. 2007; Chapman 1914: 227. Paradigm: =tʰaː-n̥ [imperf.] / =tʰaː-ʔ [perf.]. Polysemy: 'to lie / to lie down'. Actually. =tʰaː- is a generic classificatory verb with the meaning 'to handle animate obj' [Kari 1976: 46]. Cf. some examples for 'to lie (down)': "The dog is lying on the grass", "She's lying down", "We'll lie down after a while" [Taff et al. 2007], "in which he lies (bed)" [Chapman 1914: 153]. Apparently used with both sg. and pl. subj.
Distinct from =ǝt 'to lie / to lie down' [Kari 1976: 16; Chapman 1914: 223] used with pl. subj. only. This verb seems rare, not found in [Taff et al. 2007].
Sarsi:=tʰíh1
Li 1930b: 18; Hoijer 1956: 223; Cook 1984: 140. Ablaut paradigm: =tʰíh [imperf.] / =tʰàh [perf.]. Polysemy: 'to lie / to sleep / sg. living being is in position'; used with sg. subj.
Cf. the cognate active paradigm =tʰàh [imperf.] / =tʰíh ~ =tʰí-n- [perf.] 'to lie down / to handle sg. living being' [Cook 1984: 140-142].
Distinct from the verbs used with pl. subj.: neuter =V=tʰáːz [imperf., perf.] / =V=tʰáːz ~ =V=tʰác- 'to lie / to sleep / several living beings are in position'; active =V=tʰàs / =V=tʰáːz ~ =V=tʰác- 'to lie down / to handle several living beings' [Li 1930b: 19; Cook 1984: 140].
NUMBER:48
WORD:liver
Hupa:possr=sitʼ1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 784; Golla 1996: 57. The synchronic root can be either =sitʼ or =sit (possr=sitʼ < *possr=sit-iʔ).
Mattole:possr=cʰˈiʔɬ1
Li 1930: 131.
Bear River dialect: possr=satʼ ~ possr=siɬ 'liver' [Goddard 1929: 317].
Kato:possr=tʰel-eʔ2
Goddard 1912: 22.
Taldash Galice:possr=saʔɬ1
Hoijer 1973: 58.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:possr=yǝtʼ1
Kari 2007: 96, 353; Kari 1977: 105.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:possr=zǝtʼ1
Kari 2007: 96, 353; Kari 1977: 105.
Inland Tanaina:possr=zǝtʼ1
Kari 2007: 96, 353; Kari 1977: 105; Wassillie 1979: 59.
Iliamna Tanaina:possr=zǝtʼ1
Kari 2007: 96, 353; Kari 1977: 105.
Central Ahtena:possr=zeʔt1
Kari 1990: 459, 547; Kari & Buck 1975: 69; Smelcer 2010: 50.
Jetté & Jones 2000: 48, 948; Jones 1978: 96. In [Jones 1978], quoted as =kʰoːlʔoːnǝ-ʔ. Literally 'compact object in the abdomen' with the generic classificatory verb =ʔoː-y̥ / =ʔoː-n̥ 'compact object is in position' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 40] and incorporated kʰoː- (< possr=kʰoːn̥) 'abdomen' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 298].
Degexit'an:possr=ʼǝ=ʁǝ=ðǝ=ʔoː-n3
Kari 1978: 36. Verbal form with the generic classificatory verb =ʔoː-y̥ [imperf.] / =ʔoː-n̥ [perf.] 'to handle compact object' [Kari 1976: 4], although further analysis is uncertain.
Sarsi:possr=zìʔ1
Hoijer & Joël 1963: 69.
NUMBER:49
WORD:long
Hupa:=neːs1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 776; Golla 1996: 58; Golla 1970: 77. Verbal root with polysemy: 'to be long / to be tall'. The heavy stem, originating from *=neːs-i. Cf. the irregular short variant nis, which is possibly attested in the compound nis-kʸiŋ 'fir, pine; any tall conifer', lit. 'tall tree' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 778; Golla 1996: 35].
Mattole:=neːs1
Li 1930: 95. Normally a verbal root: 'to be long'.
Bear River dialect: nes with polysemy: 'long / tall' [Goddard 1929: 318].
Arnold et al. 2009: 168; Holton 2000: 350; Shinen 1958: 20. Fossilized verbal form < *n=ndéːθ 'it is long'.
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):=ndiah1
Milanowski 2009: 21, 49, 100, 120. The fossilized verbal form ndiah ~ ndiaː 'long' < *n=ndiah '(it is) long' is also used in the adjectival function.
Lower Tanana (Minto):=naθ ~ =l=naθ1
Kari 1994: 198, 431. Verb with polysemy: 'to be long / to be tall, high'. Also functions as the noun-like adlective naθ ~ nað-aʔ 'long'. Cf. the examples: "a long rope", "a long willow", "a long cane" [Kari 1994: 198], "The mouse is brown, and it has a long tail" [Tuttle 2009: 138], "The crane has long legs" [Tuttle 2009: 170].
A second candidate is =ɬ=ʔʌ [Kari 1994: 23] from the generic verb =ʔʌ 'linear, elongated, rigid object extends' [Kari 1994: 22]. Cf. Kari's examples: "it (rope) is long", "its leaves are narrow and long", "it is straight". It seems that =ɬ=ʔʌ is more rare than =naθ and its meaning is close to 'straight'.
Central Carrier:=yiz̪2
Poser 1998/2013: 794, 1224, 1264; Antoine et al. 1974: 317. Verb with polysemy: 'to be long (spatial) / to be tall'. Cf. some examples: "Tusayda Lake is very long and narrow" [Poser 1998/2013: 37], "long conifer branch" [Poser 1998/2013: 57], "The lake is long" [Poser 1998/2013: 106], "That man has long hair", "The song is long", "The tree is tall" [Poser 1998/2013: 126], "The posts form a long line to the east" [Poser 1998/2013: 139], "The road is long", "The river is long" [Poser 1998/2013: 183], "The rope is long" " [Poser 1998/2013: 401].
In some fossilized forms, =yiz̪ can also express the meaning 'to be long (temporal)', e.g., in the adverb ntʌxʷʌl=yiz̪ 'all of the time, all along' [Poser 1998/2013: 335].
Distinct from =ɬ=c̪aʔ 'to be long (temporal)' < =c̪aʔ 'to be light in weight' [Poser 1998/2013: 794, 1219, 1252]. Cf. some examples: "it (period of time) is long", "The days are getting longer", "In mid-summer the day is very long" [Poser 1998/2013: 124-125], "The lynx chased the rabbit a long ways" [Poser 1998/2013: 156].
Koyukon:=naːɬ1
Jetté & Jones 2000: 432, 948; Jones 1978: 97. Verb with polysemy: 'to be long (spatial) / to be tall / to be long (temporal)'. Also used with the "classifier" ɬ-. Cf. some examples: "The boat is long", "a long stick of wood", "The pencil is long", "The rope is too long".
Degexit'an:=ŋaːθ1
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1976: 39; Chapman 1914: 211. Verb with polysemy: 'to be long (spatial) / to be tall / to be long (temporal)'. Cf. some examples: "long hair", "The rope is too long", "far away, long ways", "In January the days are beginning to get longer" [Taff et al. 2007]. The noun-like adjective ŋǝθ 'long' may also be used [Taff et al. 2007].
Sarsi:=ƛʼúːl3
Li 1930b: 27; Nanagusja 1996a: 129. Verbal stem: 'to be long'. Cf. some examples: "Does he have long hair?" [Nanagusja 1996a: 82], "It has long ears" [Nanagusja 1996a: 108], "It has big red eyes. It has long teeth. It is hungry" [Nanagusja 1996b: 296], "These pants arc too long" [Nanagusja 1996b: 313]. Cf. the cognate noun ƛʼúɬ 'rope' [Hoijer & Joël 1963: 68].
A second candidate is =V=cʰīs ~ =V=cʰīs-t 'to be long, tall' [Li 1930b: 24], but without examples or semantic specifications.
Distinct from =nàːz 'to be tall, giant-like' [Li 1930b: 19]. Note that in [Hoijer 1956: 222] it is quoted in the Swadesh meaning 'long'.
NUMBER:50
WORD:louse
Hupa:yaʔ1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 804; Golla 1996: 58. In [Golla 1996], glossed as 'louse (specifically head louse), parasite' (polysemy: 'louse / parasite'). On the contrary, in [Sapir & Golla 2001], yaʔ is specified as 'body louse', whereas the meaning 'head louse' is ascribed to the compound yaʔ-aɬ-qay < *yaʔ-ɬi-qay, literally 'white louse' (in [Golla 1996: 58], this compound is quoted as yaʔ-uɬ-qay with the direct translation 'white louse').
Mattole:ʔiː=ʔˈaʔ1
Li 1930: 125. Glossed as 'head louse'. Apparently a contraction from *ʔi=yaʔ-eʔ 'its/smbd.'s louse' with the indefinite possessive pronoun ʔi- (for which see notes on 'meat'). Cf. the similar contracted Hupa form maːʔaʔ 'its parasite' < *mi=yaʔ-iʔ [Golla 1996: 58].
The old root yaʔ 'louse' is also retained in the compound yaʔ-s-kai 'white louse' (i.e., 'Arctorthezia' or rather 'body louse'?) [Li 1930: 125] (with =kai 'to be white' q.v.; medial -s- is the durative perfective exponent [Li 1930: 66]).
Bear River dialect: yaʔ ~ ya 'head louse', distinct from the compound ya-s-ɣai 'body louse' (lit. 'white louse') [Goddard 1929: 318].
Kato:yaʔ1
Goddard 1912: 19. Specified by Goddard as 'head louse'. Cf. the compound yaʔ-ɬkai 'white louse' (i.e., 'Arctorthezia'?) [Goddard 1912: 28] (with ɬ=kai 'white' q.v.).
Taldash Galice:yaʔ1
Hoijer 1973: 57; Hoijer 1956: 223. Glossed simply as 'louse'. Distinct from the compound yaʔ-ɬkai 'body louse' (lit. 'white louse') [Hoijer 1973: 57].
Upper Inlet Tanaina:ǝyu1
Kari 2007: 44, 353; Kari 1977: 54.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:ǝyu1
Kari 2007: 44, 353; Kari 1977: 54.
Inland Tanaina:ǝyu1
Kari 2007: 44, 353; Kari 1977: 54.
Iliamna Tanaina:ǝyu1
Kari 2007: 44, 353; Kari 1977: 54.
TFN_NOTES:
Historically, should be ǝ=yu, although the first element is unclear. In all the dialects, applied to both human lice and animal lice (dog, bear, squirrel), but not to bird lice.
Central Ahtena:yaʔ1
Kari 1990: 431, 549; Kari & Buck 1975: 29; Smelcer 2010: 90.
Western Ahtena: yaʔ [Kari 1990: 431, 549; Kari & Buck 1975: 29; Smelcer 2010: 90].
Mentasta Ahtena:yaʔ1
Kari 1990: 431, 549; Kari & Buck 1975: 29; Smelcer 2010: 90.
Dogrib:žà1
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 135, 186. Innovative pronunciation: zà. Glossed with polysemy: 'louse / flea / tick' in [Saxon & Siemens n.d.], 'louse / tick' in [Saxon & Siemens 1996] (there are no expressions for 'flea' in the latter dictionary).
Distinct from tʰéhcʼèː 'flea, tick (on dogs or rabbit)' [Saxon & Siemens n.d.].
North Slavey (Hare):yáʔ1
Rice 1978: 110, 150; Hoijer 1956: 222.
Tanacross:š̬áʔ1
Arnold et al. 2009: 164; Holton 2000: 344; Brean & Milanowski 1979: 8; McRoy 1973: 4; Shinen 1958: 11.
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):š̬ʸaʔ1
Milanowski 2009: 23, 76. Specified as 'lice (on people)'.
Distinct from ƛʼaɣŋ, which is glossed as 'lice (on animal)' [Milanowski 2009: 26, 76].
Northway: š̬ʸaʔ 'lice (on people)', ƛʼeɣŋ 'lice (on animal)' [Milanowski 2007: 11].
Scottie Creek: š̬àʔ with polysemy: 'louse / flea', ƛʼɯː 'blood sucker' [John 1997: 44]. For the meaning 'flea' cf. the collocation ɬĩː š̬àːʔ which is glossed as 'fleas', literally 'dog's š̬àʔ' [John 1997: 44].
Lower Tanana (Minto):yʌʔ1
Kari 1994: 336, 432; Tuttle 2009: 122.
Central Carrier:possr=yaʔ1
Poser 1998/2013: 549, 800; Poser 2011a: 135. Inalienable possession. Polysemy: 'louse / flea / tick'. Synchronously either =yaʔ or =ya-ʔ.
Koyukon:yoːʔ1
Jetté & Jones 2000: 707, 949; Jones 1978: 98.
Degexit'an:yoːʔ1
Kari 1978: 15.
Sarsi:yɒ̀ʔ1
Hoijer & Joël 1963: 67; Hoijer 1956: 222.
NUMBER:51
WORD:man
Hupa:xo=ʔes=ta-y ~ xo=ʔos=ta-y ~ xʷe=ʔes=ta-y1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 745; Golla 1996: 60. Polysemy: 'man / male (subst.)'. As proposed in [Sapir & Golla 2001], apparently reduced from *xo=čʼi=s=taː-i with the verb =taː 'to stay, live; to sit down' (see notes on 'to sit'), i.e., 'man' as 'the one who sits down' ("[o]nly adult men were allowed to sit on redwood stools; woman and children sat on the ground").
Mattole:kaʔtʼˈeːn2
Li 1930: 129. Polysemy: 'man / husband'. Morphologically unclear. Li proposes that the first element kaʔ- means 'male', whereas tʼeːn is to be analyzed as the verb =tʼeː 'to be of such sort' [Li 1930: 92] (perhaps the same verb is used in kʷo=ni=s=tʼˈeʔ 'person' q.v.) plus the ethnonymical suffix -niː 'person' [Li 1930: 138].
Bear River dialect: kʰatʰene ~ kʼatʼenːe ~ kʰatʰatːa 'man; husband' [Goddard 1929: 318] (corrupted forms, which correspond to the Mattole proper word). The second term for 'man' quoted in [Goddard 1929: 318] is ko-ne-s-tʼe, which is in reality, apparently, a word for 'person' q.v.
Kato:naneš ~ naneːš3
Goddard 1909: 79 No. 9, 119 No. 3, 130 No. 1, 165 No. 10, 168 No. 16, 175 No. 7-9. Morphologically unclear. Polysemy: 'man [sg.] / person [sg.] / people [pl.]'. As explained in [Goddard 1909: 71 fn. 21], this word originally meant 'human being', having recently been narrowed down to the meaning 'Indian, not European'. Currently this is also the default word for 'man [sg.]', although browsing through [Goddard 1909] would rather suggest that the plural meaning 'men' is expressed by the unanalyzable stem nǝn-kʰa-tǝŋ [Goddard 1909: 165 No. 13, 173 No. 1, 9].
Distinct from the unanalyzable possr=yeʔ-tǝŋ 'husband' [Goddard 1912: 23; Goddard 1909: 132 No. 14], which probably contains the same verbal root tǝŋ as nǝn-kʰa-tǝŋ 'men' above. Formally it can be interpreted as the verb =tǝn 'to die' q.v.
Taldash Galice:te=s=teː1
Hoijer 1973: 54; Hoijer 1956: 223; Landar 1977: 295. The pl. form is te=s=teː-yoː 'men' with the rare plural suffix [Hoijer 1966: 322 f.]. Cf. with different grammatical exponents: possr=te=sa=te-ʔ 'husband' [Hoijer 1973: 54], čʰa=teː 'old man' [Hoijer 1973: 54] and ta=teː 'person, human being' q.v. The term for 'people' is ta=teː according to [Hoijer 1973], cf. natʰaːiniː-tateː 'waterfall people (a tribal name)' [Hoijer 1973: 55], ƛʼoh-tateː 'grass people (Umpqua Indians)' [Hoijer 1973: 62].
The archaic form of =teː is =tai, as follows from ta=tai 'people' [Jacobs 1968: 184 No. 6]; thus, Hoijer's synchronic root =teː represents a contraction of the heavy stem *=taː-i from =taː 'to sit' q.v. Further see notes on the Hupa term for 'man'.
Distinct from a second term for 'husband': possr=kʰanʔ [Hoijer 1973: 56].
Upper Inlet Tanaina:qʰuχtʼan-a4
Kari 2007: 72, 353; Kari 1977: 88. Used for both sg. ('man, person') and pl. ('men, persons').
Outer Inlet Tanaina:qʰuχtʼan-a ~ qʰutʼan-a4
Kari 2007: 72, 353; Kari 1977: 88. Used for both sg. ('man, person') and pl. ('men, persons').
Inland Tanaina:qʰutʼan4
Kari 2007: 72, 353; Kari 1977: 88. Used only for sg. The pl. form is qʰutʼan-a.
Iliamna Tanaina:qʰuχtʼan-a4
Kari 2007: 72, 353; Kari 1977: 88. Used for both sg. ('man, person') and pl. ('men, persons').
TFN_NOTES:
Polysemy: 'man / person' in all the dialects.
The stems qʰutʼan ~ qʰuχtʼan are literally translated as "one who has territory" in [Kari 2007: 72], which implies the analysis qʰu=tʼan ~ qʰu=χ=tʼan with the areal object prefix qʰu=, the subject 3rd p. pl. prefix =qʰǝ= (regularly > χ) or the zero subject 3rd p. sg. prefix =0= plus =tʼan < *=t=ʔan, i.e., =ʔan 'to do; to have; to see (q.v.)' with the classifier t-.
The formal Inland opposition sg. qʰutʼan / pl. qʰutʼan-a suggests that pl. qʰutʼan-a originates from *qʰutʼan-na, where -na is the plural relative nominalizer 'those persons who' [Kari 2007: 329; Holton et al. 2004: 15; Boraas 2010: 17, 52]. In the rest of the dialects, the original plural form has superseded the singular one.
Distinct from the specific collective word for 'people', which is quoted as tnay (all dialects) in [Kari 2007: 72], but as Upper Inlet tna in [Lovick 2005: 184 ex. 5.19a], Outer Inlet tna in [Boraas 2010: 25] (in [Tenenbaum 1978: 73], the Inland form is quoted as tǝna with the singular meaning 'person' that seems an inaccuracy). The ethnonym tǝna-ʔi-na 'the Tanaina people' (all dialects) [Kari 1977: 88] contains the same collective term t(ǝ)na apparently modified with the relative nominalizer -(ʔ)i and the plural exponent -na, for which see above.
Distinct from the term for 'husband': possr=qʰǝn (all dialects) [Kari 2007: 70; Kari 1977: 85; Wassillie 1979: 52].
Distinct from two words for 'male (animal)': possr=nǝstʼa and possr=kʰiɬ (both - all dialects) [Kari 2007: 15].
Western Ahtena: qʰohtʼeːn-e [Kari 1990: 87, 550; Kari & Buck 1975: 54].
Mentasta Ahtena:qʰohtʼeːn4
Kari 1990: 87, 550; Kari & Buck 1975: 54. Regular reduction of final -e.
AHT_NOTES:
The form qʰohtʼeːne is used for both the sg. and pl. number and glossed as 'person (of either sex), people, human, man, Ahtna person, Athabaskan person; jack in cards' by Kari. Apparently this is the default generic term for 'man', not only for 'person' q.v. (thus, with polysemy: 'person / man').
The stem qʰohtʼeːne is literally translated as 'those who have territory' in [Kari 1990: 87], which implies the analysis qʰo=h=tʼeːn-e with the areal object prefix qʰo= 'area, place' [Kari 1990: 243], the subject 3rd p. pl. prefix =qʰ= (regularly > h) [Kari 1990: 229] plus =tʼeːn-e < *=t=ʔeːn-ne, i.e., =ʔeːn 'to do; to have; to see (q.v.)' with the classifier t-. Final *-ne is the plural human relative suffix [Kari 1990: 295]. This original plural form 'persons' has superseded the singular one across the dialects (the old singular form is expected to be **qʰotʼeːn or **qʰotʼeːn-en with the zero subject 3rd p. sg. prefix and the optional singular human relative suffix -en).
Distinct from kʰʸiːɬ (all dialects) with polysemy: 'teenaged boy, young man / male (subst.)' [Kari 1990: 116; Kari & Buck 1975: 54].
Distinct from qʰãʔ (all dialects; Western: qʰanʔ) with polysemy: 'husband / male (subst.)' [Kari 1990: 236; Kari & Buck 1975: 50].
Dogrib:tóné ~ tṍ5
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 20, 187; Marinakis et al. 2007: 163. tṍ is the reduced variant of tóné. Polysemy: 'man / person / people / Dene people'. For the specific meaning 'man (male human being)', the compounds tóné-žìː ~ tṍ-žìː [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 20] can also be used, where possr=žìː means 'male', cf., e.g., ƛʰĩ́-é-žìː 'male dog' (ƛʰĩ́ 'dog').
Kari 1994: 196, 434; Tuttle 2009: 127. Glossed as 'person, human; man', thus with polysemy: 'person / man'.
Central Carrier:tʌne5
Poser 1998/2013: 141, 809; Poser 2011a: 137; Antoine et al. 1974: 89, 318. Polysemy: 'man / person'.
Koyukon:tǝnaː5
Jetté & Jones 2000: 427, 951; Jones 1978: 100. Polysemy: 'man / person'.
Distinct from possr=qʰunʔ 'husband' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 342].
Degexit'an:tǝnaː5
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 29; Chapman 1914: 225. Polysemy: 'man / person'.
Distinct from possr=qʰǝŋʔ 'husband' [Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 28; Chapman 1914: 229].
Sarsi:tìnɒ́5
Hoijer & Joël 1963: 72; Hoijer 1956: 222. Polysemy: 'man / person / eyeball, pupil of the eye'. Cf. some examples for the meaning 'man': "If a man comes to me" [Cook 1984: 42], "This man takes pretty women away from them" [Cook 1984: 79], "Having walked down the hill, the man entered the house" [Cook 1984: 84], "The man who is alive was given to me, and those six men over there in the poplar trees were also given to me" [Cook 1984: 85], "He'll hire the man" [Cook 1984: 203].
Distinct from the deverbal substantive kʼɒ̀=tʼín-ī 'male' [Hoijer & Joël 1963: 72] which can be used in the meaning 'man' as follows from the example "The man killed a beaver" [Cook 1984: 31]. Cf. the cognate substantives kùː=tʼín-ɒ̀ 'a tribe, a people', cʰúù=tʼín-à 'Sarsi' [Hoijer & Joël 1963: 72; Cook 1984: 1]. The starting verb can be =tʼí ~ =tʼín- 'to act, treat, work' [Li 1930b: 19]; ku= can be the locative/unspecified prefix [Cook 1984: 204].
Sapir & Golla 2001: 765; Golla 1996: 60. Golla 1996: 60. The variant ɬaŋ < *ɬaːn, the variant ɬaːn < *ɬaːn-i. Also functions as a verb: =ɬaːn 'to be many, lots'.
Mattole:ɬaːn1
Li 1930: 120. An adverb. Also functions as a verb: =laːn < *=lan-i [imperf.] / =laːʔn < *=lan-ʔ-i [perf.] 'to be many' [Li 1930: 120].
Distinct from ni=ɕʰˈah-kʷ 'in large quantity' [Li 1930: 118], formed from the verb =ɕʰah / =ɕʰaːɣ 'to be big' q.v. with the adverbial suffix -kʷ [Li 1930: 137].
Bear River dialect: not attested.
Kato:ɬaŋ1
Goddard 1912: 29, 64. Also functions as a verb: =ɬaŋ 'to be many'.
Taldash Galice:ɬãː1
Hoijer 1956: 223; Landar 1977: 295.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:kʰi=s=tʼa2
Kari 2007: 327; Kari 1977: 261.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:kʰi=š=tʼa2
Kari 2007: 327; Kari 1977: 261; Boraas 2010: 43.
Inland Tanaina:kʰi=š=tʼa2
Kari 2007: 327; Kari 1977: 261. According to [Holton et al. 2004: 12], with polysemy: 'many / too much / very'.
Iliamna Tanaina:kʰi=š=tʼa2
Kari 2007: 327; Kari 1977: 261.
TFN_NOTES:
Tanaina kʰi=š=tʼa is not entirely clear morphologically. Apparently =tʼa is the verb =tʼa [imperf.] / =la ~ =la-n [perf.] 'to be' [Tenenbaum 1978: 111]. Initial kʰi= is the adverb/adjective kʰi 'more; another' (all dialects) [Kari 2007: 328; Kari 1977: 260; Boraas 2010: 43].
Cf. kʰi=š=la 'a little more' (all dialects; Upper Inlet kʰi=s=la) with the perfective stem of 'to be' [Kari 2007: 328; Kari 1977: 261; Boraas 2010: 43].
Central Ahtena:=n=l=tʼe-ʔ2
Kari 1990: 346, 550.
Lower Ahtena: =n=l=tʼe-ʔ [Kari 1990: 346, 550].
Western Ahtena: =n=l=tʼe-ʔ [Kari 1990: 346, 550].
Mentasta Ahtena:=n=l=tʼe-ʔ2
Kari 1990: 346, 550.
AHT_NOTES:
Glossed as 'to be numerous, many', used with countable objects. This verbal stem is based on the verbal root =tʼeː [imperf.] / =tʼe-ʔ [perf.] with the generic meaning 'to be thus, be in circumstances of' [Kari 1990: 344] plus the n-qualifier [Kari 1990: 285]. The adverbial form 'many, lots' is ne=l=tʼe-ʔ-i ~ ne=l=tʼeː-yi [Kari 1990: 346].
The expression for 'much', applicable to uncountable objects, is unclear.
Dogrib:ɬṍ1
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 70, 187. Polysemy: 'many / much'. Also functions as a verb: =ƛʰṍ 'to be many' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 80] (ƛʰ < *t-ɬ).
North Slavey (Hare):=ɬõ̀1
Rice 1978: 452, 519; Rice 1989: 265; Hoijer 1956: 222. Verbal root with polysemy: 'to be many / to be much'.
Tanacross:n=ƛâːn1
Arnold et al. 2009: 171; Holton 2000: 288; Shinen 1958: 19. Verbal form: 'it is many' with the adjectival/gender exponent n= [Holton 2000: 237 ff.]. Polysemy: 'many / much'.
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):n=ƛaːn ~ n=ƛãː1
Milanowski 2009: 21, 78, 120. Polysemy: 'many / much'. Verbal form: '(it is) many'. Also functions as a verb: =ƛãː 'to be many'.
Northway: n=ƛaːn 'many' [Milanowski 2007: 12].
Lower Tanana (Minto):=lon̥1
Kari 1994: 185, 434. Verbal stem: 'to be many, lots, plentiful, abundant'.
Distinct from the more marginal adverb nǝ=l=tʼa-yi 'many, lots' [Kari 1994: 252], derived from the verb =tʼa 'to be thus' [Kari 1994: 250].
Central Carrier:=lai1
Poser 1998/2013: 809, 1221, 1257; Poser 2011a: 137; Antoine et al. 1974: 111, 318. Verbal stem: 'to be many, numerous'. Cf. the fossilized adverbial form hʌ=l=ƛai 'many' (< =t=lai) [Poser 1998/2013: 192; Antoine et al. 1974: 111]. Also functions as the adverb ɬai 'many / much' [Poser 1998/2013: 241].
Koyukon:=loːn̥1
Jetté & Jones 2000: 414, 951; Jones 1978: 100. Verbal stem: 'to be many, numerous', also functions as the adverb loːn̥ 'many'.
Degexit'an:=loːŋ̥1
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1976: 33; Chapman 1914: 217. Verbal stem: 'to be many, numerous', also functions as the adverb loːŋ 'many' [Kari 1978: 53].
Sarsi:=ƛʰɒ́n-1
Li 1930b: 26; Hoijer 1956: 222. Paradigm: =ƛʰɒ́ ~ =ƛʰɒ́n-. Verbal stem with polysemy: 'to be many / to be much'.
NUMBER:53
WORD:meat
Hupa:possr=cʰiŋʔ1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 736; Golla 1996: 61; Golla 1964: 113. The synchronic root can be either cʰinʔ or cʰin (possr=cʰiŋʔ < *possr=cʰin-iʔ). Cf., however, the reduced root variant -sin-, attested in several compounds [Sapir & Golla 2001: 783; Golla 1964: 112].
Mattole:ʔi=l=xˈin-eʔ2
Li 1930: 126. Verbal expression. Initial ʔi- is apparently a rare indefinite possessive pronoun, which regularly corresponds to Hupa kʼʸi- with the same meaning (cf. the same structure in ʔi=kʰˈat-eʔ 'root' q.v., ʔi=kʼah 'fat' q.v., ʔi=ɣˈeːx-eʔ 'egg' q.v., perhaps yˈaːneʔ 'doe' [Li 1930: 125], etc.; for the historical phonetic development see [Li 1930: 36 ff.]); final -eʔ is the izafet exponent. The stem =l=xin coincides with the verb =l=xiŋ (< *=l=xin) 'to be dark, black' [Li 1930: 80] (see notes on 'black'); thus, 'meat' = 'the dark one'.
Bear River dialect: the old term possr=cʰanʔ < *=cʰan-eʔ 'meat' is retained [Goddard 1929: 296].
Kato:possr=sǝŋʔ1
Goddard 1912: 22.
Taldash Galice:possr=sanʔ1
Hoijer 1973: 58; Hoijer 1956: 223; Landar 1977: 295. Glossed as 'meat, flesh'. Synchronically, either =san-ʔ or =sanʔ.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:kʼ=cʰǝn1
Kari 2007: 278, 353; Kari 1977: 212.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:kʼ=cʰǝn1
Kari 2007: 278, 353; Kari 1977: 212.
Inland Tanaina:kʼ=cʰǝn1
Kari 2007: 278, 353; Kari 1977: 212; Wassillie 1979: 63.
Iliamna Tanaina:kʼ=cʰǝn1
Kari 2007: 278, 353; Kari 1977: 212.
TFN_NOTES:
Differently in the Seldovia dialect: kʼ=čʼunʔ-a 'meat' [Kari 2007: 278]. If this indeed was the basic Seldovia word for 'meat', it is a semantic innovation, cf. the corresponding Inland & Iliamna term kʼ(ǝ)=čʼunʔ-a 'oily tasting meat' [Kari 2007: 283; Kari 1977: 213].
Initial kʼ= is the fossilized indefinite possessive pronoun. Cf. the synchronic possessed forms: Upper Inlet, Inland possr=kʼ=cʰǝn-a, Outer Inlet, Iliamna possr=kʼ=cʰǝn-ʔa [Kari 2007: 278].
Central Ahtena:kʼʸe=cʰẽʔ1
Kari 1990: 381, 551; Kari & Buck 1975: 141; Smelcer 2010: 75.
Western Ahtena: kʼʸe=cʰenʔ [Kari 1990: 381, 551; Kari & Buck 1975: 141; Smelcer 2010: 75].
Mentasta Ahtena:kʼʸe=cʰĩʔ1
Kari 1990: 381, 551; Kari & Buck 1975: 141; Smelcer 2010: 75.
AHT_NOTES:
Proto-Ahtena *possr=cʰenʔ-0. Initial kʼʸe= is the fossilized indefinite possessive pronoun [Kari 1990: 35], i.e., 'smth.'s / smb.'s meat'. Cf. the synchronous possessed form possr=kʼʸe=cʰiːn-eʔ (all dialects, Mentasta syncopated possr=kʼʸe=cʰiːn-ʔ).
Dogrib:mpò3
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 7, 72, 187. Innovative pronunciation: pò. Glossed with polysemy: 'food / meat'. For the generic meaning 'food', cf. pò =wĩ́ 'to be hungry', pò-xàéhtʼèː 'cook' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 7].
Distinct from possr=kʰʷõ̀, glossed with polysemy: 'flesh / skin' in [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 44]. As follows from the animate possessive kó= (kó=kʰʷõ̀ 'his kʰʷõ̀'), this term is normally applied to humans, but one example for the meaning 'animal meat' has also been found: "Ring-necked duck has tough flesh (wé=kʰʷõ̀)" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 18]. Additionally, =kʰʷõ̀ is widely used as a bound root with the meaning 'meat' in such compounds as čʰíh-kʰʷõ̀ 'duck meat', tétìː-kʰʷõ̀ 'moose meat', ekʰʷõ̀-kʰʷõ̀ 'caribou meat', etc. [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 8, 14, 31], and simply in the expression e-kʰʷõ̀ 'caribou', lit. 'its meat' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 31].
North Slavey (Hare):ʔĩ̀=yẽ̀4
Rice 1978: 35, 151; Rice 1989: 10. Initial ʔĩ- is the indefinite possessive pronoun.
Distinct from possr=fẽ́-ʔ 'flesh' [Rice 1978: 54; Hoijer 1956: 222]. Hoijer adduces the 19th c. archaic variant {=kfwen}.
Distinct from péʔ, possr=pér-éʔ 'food' [Rice 1978: 38, 139].
Tanacross:šíʔ5
Arnold et al. 2009: 172; Holton 2000: 186, 221; Brean & Milanowski 1979: 20; McRoy 1973: 15; Shinen 1958: 15. Polysemy: 'meat / food (in general)'.
Distinct from the more specific term n=ɬ̬èːn 'cooked meat' [Arnold et al. 2009: 173; Holton 2000: 345], which represents a nominalized verbal form with the adjectival/gender exponent n= [Holton 2000: 237 ff.] (the synchronic meaning of the root =ɬ̬èːn is unlear).
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):šiʔ ~ šiːʔ5
Milanowski 2009: 23, 74, 78. Polysemy: 'food / meat'. Cf. the example: "He chews meat and then swallows it" [Milanowski 2009: 41], "He's cutting the meat" [Milanowski 2009: 59], "This meat is tough" [Milanowski 2009: 108].
Distinct from the more specific or rare term possr=tθʰĩː-ʔ, glossed as 'flesh, meat', applicable to both animals and humans [Milanowski 2009: 26, 69] with the example: "He is roasting moose meat" [Milanowski 2009: 59].
Northway: šiʔ with polysemy: 'food / meat' [Milanowski 2007: 12].
Scottie Creek: šìʔ, possr=tθʰĩ̀ː-ʔ, both are glossed as 'meat', but according to the examples in [John 1997: 41-42] the former one is more common.
Lower Tanana (Minto):possr=tθʰǝnʔ1
Kari 1994: 310, 435; Tuttle 2009: 130. Polysemy: 'meat / game / vagina'. The synchronous possessed form is =tθʰǝnʔ-0 or sometimes =tθʰǝn-aʔ (< =tθʰǝnʔ-aʔ).
Distinct from more rare tʌn-i 'game, meat' [Kari 1994: 78]. In the Chena dialect, the rare term nǝ=lan-i 'meat, flesh' is also attested [Kari 1994: 178] (a nominalized verbal form, the meaning of the starting root =lan is unknown).
Distinct from two terms for 'fish meat': čʼǝ=nʌt [Kari 1994: 224] (čʼǝ= is the indefinite possessive pronoun) and possr=θʌʔ [Kari 1994: 91].
Central Carrier:possr=c̪ʰʌŋ1
Poser 1998/2013: 69, 507, 812; Poser 2011a: 139; Antoine et al. 1974: 50, 318. Applied to mammals and birds.
Distinct from possr=yat 'meat of fish' [Poser 1998/2013: 555; Poser 2011a: 139].
Koyukon:nǝ=laːn-ǝ6
Jetté & Jones 2000: 384, 953; Jones 1978: 101. Possessed: possr=ǝn=laːn-ǝ-ʔ. Glossed as 'meat, flesh of mammals'. Derived from ɬaːn̥ 'green wood, timber, standing tree' (historically 'fresh object with sap or juice') with the anatomical gender exponent ǝn-/nǝ- [Jetté & Jones 2000: 460].
The old term ƛʰǝnʔ, possr=ƛʰǝnʔ is glossed as 'meat from warm-blooded animals, human flesh' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 576] (with the example "he hauled its (game animal's) meat home"), being a rarely used synonym of nǝ=laːn-ǝ. This root is also retained in kʼǝ=ƛʰǝnʔ 'piece of meat, supply of animal or fish meat' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 576] (kʼǝ= is the indefinite possessive) and several compounds.
Distinct from possr=noːt 'fish meat, flesh of cold-blooded animals' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 489].
Degexit'an:neː=laːŋ6
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 80; Chapman 1914: 214. Historically = 'anatomical fresh object', see notes on Koyukon nǝ=laːn-ǝ 'meat'. This is the most frequent word for 'meat' in both [Taff et al. 2007] and [Chapman 1914], cf. some examples: "She's cooking meat", "Friday (lit. the day we don't eat meat)", "He's cutting meat with a knife", "He's chewing dried meat", "The meat is raw" [Taff et al. 2007], "Then she offered him meat; but the Raven said, 'I don't care for meat, I get tired of it: fish is the only thing that I care for'" [Chapman 1914: 119], "There was nothing, — no food or meat" [Chapman 1914: 121], "Finally, while the boys were asleep, she brought in, from off her cache, meat and fat and king-salmon dried, and piled it up in the house" [Chapman 1914: 128].
The old term possr=tθʰǝŋʔ is glossed as 'meat' in [Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 80; Chapman 1914: 221], but actually is rarely used. Cf. the found examples: "fly (lit. that which eats meat)", "I want beaver meat" [Taff et al. 2007], "One was cooking deer-meat in a large pot, and the other was cooking beaver-meat in a large pot" [Chapman 1914: 131].
Sarsi:á=lín-í6
Hoijer & Joël 1963: 73; Hoijer 1956: 222. Without the gender prefix: possr=lín-ɒ̀ '(human) flesh'.
NUMBER:54
WORD:moon
Hupa:ʍaː ~ xiƛʼeʔ=ʍaː1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 796; Golla 1996: 63, 92; Hoijer 1956: 223. The word ʍaː shows the standard areal polysemy: 'sun / moon', although there exists a specialized expression for 'moon': xiƛʼeʔ=ʍaː, literally 'night' q.v. + 'sun / moon' (quoted in [Golla 1996: 63], not yet noted in [Sapir & Golla 2001]). For similar specialized expressions for 'sun' see under the latter.
Distinct from expressions for 'month': (ɬaʔ)-naː-ŋʔ-a-ʔ ~ naː-ŋʔ-a-ʔ, literally '(one round object, i.e., moon) has come to lie there again' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 600; Golla 1996: 63] and mi-niŋ, literally 'its side, slope' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 777; Golla 1996: 63].
Mattole:xaː1
Li 1930: 126, 148 sub No. 75. Polysemy: 'sun / moon / month / light of sun or moon'. In order to avoid this polysemy, certain collocations are also used: kaːniŋ-xˈa-ʔ 'moon' (the first element means 'evening') and čiŋ-xˈa-ʔ 'sun' (the first element means 'day').
Bear River dialect: ɣanːiŋ-xa-ʔ ~ kanu-ʍa-ʔ 'moon' [Goddard 1929: 318].
Kato:na=ka-i2
Goddard 1912: 30; Curtis 1924: 205. Literally 'it walks' with =ka 'to walk' [Goddard 1912: 76] (=ka is apparently a specific compressed form of the generic verb =ya 'to go' q.v.). According to examples in [Goddard 1909: 81 No. 4, 99 No. 14, 100 No. 10-12, 101 No. 14, 141 No. 7], this is currently the default expression for 'moon'. The more archaic term ša with polysemy: 'sun / moon' is scarcely attested in the latter meaning: in one text as a full-fledged term [Goddard 1909: 122 No. 10-12, 16] and once in an idiomatic month name "long moon" [Goddard 1909: 121 No. 12].
Taldash Galice:čʼaː=l=sĩː3
Hoijer 1973: 61. In [Hoijer 1956: 223], quoted as ya=l=si. Both are nominalized verbal forms, although the verbal root =sĩː seems synchronically isolated (cf. =sĩː 'to make, prepare, do to' and =sĩː 'to hide' [Hoijer 1973: 70]).
Upper Inlet Tanaina:ʁǝ=l=ca-y4
Kari 2007: 148, 354; Kari 1977: 135.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:ʁǝ=l=ča4
Kari 2007: 148, 354; Kari 1977: 135.
Inland Tanaina:ʁǝ=l=ča-y4
Kari 2007: 148, 354; Kari 1977: 135. In [Wassillie 1979: 64], quoted as the full form ʁǝ=l=ča-yi.
Iliamna Tanaina:ʁǝ=l=ča-y4
Kari 2007: 148, 354; Kari 1977: 135.
TFN_NOTES:
Seldovia dialect: ʁǝ=l=ča 'moon'.
Literally 'the one that is luminous' with the verb =ča 'to shine, be luminous' (not found as a separate entry in the available sources) with the relative nominalizer -(ʔ)i / -(y)i [Kari 2007: 329; Boraas 2010: 17, 144] and the modal exponent ʁǝ=. The expected full form ʁǝ=l=ča-yi is attested as an Inland variant, although it is normally reduced to ʁǝ=l=ča-y or even ʁǝ=l=ča. Cf. the identical descriptive expression with a different verbal prefix: qʰǝ=l=ča-yi (all dialects) 'flashlight' [Kari 2007: 257; Wassillie 1979: 39].
Central Ahtena:tʰec=na=ʔaː-y-eʔ5
Kari 1990: 73, 334, 554; Kari & Buck 1975: 87; Smelcer 2010: 126.
Western Ahtena: tʰec=na=ʔaː-y-eʔ [Kari 1990: 73, 334, 554; Kari & Buck 1975: 87; Smelcer 2010: 126].
Mentasta Ahtena:tʰec=na=ʔaː-y-ʔ5
Kari 1990: 73, 334, 554; Kari & Buck 1975: 87; Smelcer 2010: 126.
AHT_NOTES:
In [Smelcer 2010: 126], quoted as tʰec na=ʔaː-y without the izafet suffix - either an inaccuracy or a reduced form.
Since tʰec na=ʔaː-y-eʔ is quoted as the only expression for 'moon' in [Smelcer 2010] (all dialects), we treat this as the most neutral designation of 'moon' in the Ahtena dialects. This expression literally means 'night's naʔaːy', where naʔaːy means 'sun' (for which see below), i.e., 'night sun'.
The second word for 'moon' is ʁa=l=ceː-y (all dialects), literally 'that which shines' from the verb =l=ceːs 'to shine' (with regular s > y, cf., e.g., ʔaːs / =ʔaːy-eʔ 'snowshoe') and the relative nominalizer -yi [Kari 1990: 170, 554; Kari & Buck 1975: 87]. This form coincides with the basic Tanaina term ʁǝ=l=ča-y 'moon' q.v.; apparently ʁa=l=ceː-y is a new Tanaina-influenced formation.
The third word for 'moon' is simply na=ʔaː-y, which is glossed with the polysemy: 'sun / moon / month' in [Kari 1990: 73], but only as 'sun' in [Kari & Buck 1975: 87; Smelcer 2010: 126]. Apparently the meaning 'moon; month' is marginal for na=ʔaː-y, whereas in the non-Mentasta dialects this is the default designation for 'sun' (i.e., Central, Lower, Western). The literal meaning of na=ʔaː-y is 'a compact object that moves across': the classificatory verb =ʔaː 'to handle a compact object' [Kari 1990: 70], the relative nominalizer -y(i) and the directional prefix na= 'across' [Kari 1990: 290]. Ahtena na=ʔaː-y 'sun' (> secondarily also 'moon, month') coincides with the basic Tanaina term *nu=ʔu-yi 'sun' q.v.; apparently, na=ʔaː-y is a new Tanaina-influenced formation in the non-Mentasta dialects. There is also a full collocation for 'sun' (which mirrors the aforementioned collocation for 'moon'): non-Mentasta ceːn na=ʔaː-y-eʔ 'day's naʔaːy' [Kari 1990: 73] - this one was introduced after the contact-induced expression na=ʔaː-y 'sun' had appeared in the non-Mentasta dialects and subsequently na=ʔaː-y had acquired the areal polysemy 'sun / moon'.
The old root for 'sun / moon' is retained in Mentasta as saː with the polysemy: 'sun / month' [Kari 1990: 448; Kari & Buck 1975: 87; Smelcer 2010: 126]. This is the basic expression for 'sun' in Mentasta. Note that the polysemy 'sun / month' safely allow us to reconstruct *saː as the Proto-Ahtena term for 'sun / moon / month'.
Several sá-based terms for 'moon' are quoted in [Saxon & Siemens 1996], out of which ácẽ́zàː is the only one quoted in [Siemens et al. 2007]; so it is likely that ácẽ́zàː is the most frequent and neutral expression for 'moon' in modern Dogrib. Literally 'sá of moonlight' with ácẽ́ 'moonlight' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 4]. Final zàː is the possessed form of sá 'sun, moon' (for which see below) with archaic intervocalic voicing and regular vowel change [Marinakis et al. 2007: 94 f.]. The abnormal form =záh is apparently a back-formation from =zàː. In turn, ácẽ́ 'moonlight' is not entirely clear, apparently a verbal form from the otherwise unattested verb 'to shine'; cf. cẽ́ 'day, daylight, light, brightness' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 22].
The second term is simple sá with polysemy: 'sun / moon / month' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 88, 189]. It is the default expression for 'sun' q.v. and 'month' in modern Dogrib, but its meaning 'moon' is apparently obsolete - in [Siemens et al. 2007: 59], sá is only glossed as 'sun / month'.
The third term is tʰó=kṍh=sá 'moon' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 98], literally 'sá of the night (tʰó)' with the unclear element kṍh.
The word sá can be safely posited as the Proto-Dogrib term for 'sun / moon / month'.
North Slavey (Hare):ʔà=ciéʔ4
Rice 1978: 23, 153. This seems to be the basic term for 'moon' in Hare, since it is also used in such expressions as 'crescent moon', 'full moon', 'half moon', 'rainbow around moon'. Apparently a verbal form from the otherwise unattested verb 'to shine'.
Another expression for 'moon' is tʰèwè=tìh=sà [Rice 1978: 96], consisting of tʰèwè 'night', sà 'sun / month' and (perhaps) tih 'here'. Cf. the mirroring expression cìnè=tìh=sà 'sun' with cìnè 'day'.
Distinct from sà 'sun / month' q.v., which is quoted in [Hoijer 1956: 222] with the 19th c. archaic polysemy: 'sun / moon'. The word sà can be safely posited as the Proto-North Slavey term for 'sun / moon / month'.
Tanacross:ɣ=è=l=cèːy4
Arnold et al. 2009: 176; Holton 2000: 345; Brean & Milanowski 1979: 13; McRoy 1973: 6; Shinen 1958: 13. Literally 'it shines' with the verb =l=cèy̥ 'to shine (of a light other than the sun)' [Holton 2000: 137] and the conjugation prefix ɣ=. Cf. the parallel nominalized form n=è=l=cèːy 'any artificial light (e.g., candle)' [Arnold et al. 2009: 165; Holton 2000: 137] with another conjugation prefix n=.
Distinct from sàː 'sun; month' (see sub 'sun'); such a polysemy indicates that sàː was the Proto-Tanacross term for 'sun / moon / month'.
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):čʼ=a=l=ceːk ~ čʼ=a=l=ceːɣŋ4
Milanowski 2009: 13, 78. Literally 'it shines' with the verb =l=ceːk 'to light (as from a bulb)' [Milanowski 2009: 42]. Final ...ɣŋ < *...k-ǝ with the ǝ-nominalizer.
Kari 1994: 236, 354, 438; Tuttle 2009: 135. This is the Minto form, literally 'night sun' with tʰǝtθ 'night' and ʂo 'sun'.
In the Chena dialect, either simply so with polysemy: 'sun / moon / month' is used [Kari 1994: 354] or tʰǝtθ ɣǝ=l=cay-i 'moon' [Kari 1994: 98, 236], literally 'night shining' from =l=cay (Minto: =l=ay) 'to shine'.
Central Carrier:sa1
Poser 1998/2013: 420, 816; Antoine et al. 1974: 198, 319. Polysemy: 'sun / moon / generally any heavenly body other than a star'.
The second expression for 'moon' is the collocation ʔʌɬc̪is̪ u-za-ʔ, literally 'its za (< sa) at night' [Poser 1998/2013: 58; Poser 2011a: 142; Antoine et al. 1974: 35].
Distinct from sa-nʌn 'month' [Poser 1998/2013: 425, 816], literally 'nʌn of moon'. In [Morice 1932, 1: 30], simple nʌn is glossed as 'month; season', which is not confirmed in [Poser 1998/2013: 389].
Koyukon:t=oː=ɬ=tʼoː-l6
Jetté & Jones 2000: 550, 957; Jones 1978: 104. Variants with the retained relativizer suffix are attested as well: toːɬtʼoːl-ǝ ~ toːɬtʼoːl-iː. Literally 'burning object in position'. Derived from the generic classificatory verb =tǝ=ɬ=tʼoː 'burning object is in position' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 549].
In the Lower dialect, it competes with a more rare term noː=ʔoː-y, with polysemy: 'sun / moon', literally 'compact object that repetitively moves' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 53] < the generic classificatory verb =ʔoː 'compact object is in position'.
There are also several expressions for 'moon' based on the words soː 'sun', noː=ʔoː-y 'sun / moon' and ƛʰǝt / tʰǝƛ 'night' with the literal meaning 'night's sun' in non-Central dialects: Lower ƛʰǝt-ǝ noːʔoːy [Jetté & Jones 2000: 577], Lower ƛʰǝtaːɬ zoː-ʔo [Jetté & Jones 2000: 739], Upper (Toklat-Bearpaw subdialect) tʰǝƛ zoː-ʔ [Jetté & Jones 2000: 514].
Distinct from several words for 'month': soː 'sun / month' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 739] (< *'sun / moon / month'), possr=noːʁ-ǝʔ 'eye / month' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 487] ('moon' as 'eye'?), possr=nen̥ [Jetté & Jones 2000: 470] (*'during a period').
Degexit'an:t=oː=ɬ=tʼoː-l6
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 45. Literally 'burning object in position', for internal meaning see comm. on the Koyukon form. Cf. the examples for t=oː=ɬ=tʼoː-l 'moon': "At that time darkness was over all the earth; there was no sun (noː=ʔoː-y) or moon (toː-ɬ-tʼoː-l) there" [Chapman 1914: 106], "Dusk or darkness, no sun (noː=ʔoː-y) no moon (toː-ɬ-tʼoː-l), only darkness, yet he travelled" [Chapman 1914: 111], "Then it was dark with the woman, and she looked for the moon" [Chapman 1914: 161], "The moon is bright" [Taff et al. 2007].
According to [Kari 1978: 45], the word noː=ʔoː-y 'sun' q.v. means both 'sun' and 'moon', but this is not confirmed by other sources.
Distinct from two words for 'month' offered in [Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 49]: possr=ŋǝn̥ (*'during a period'), noːʔoː ~ noːʔ (apparently contraction of noː=ʔoː-y 'sun' q.v.).
Sarsi:yìː=nɒ́ɣ-ɒ́7
Hoijer & Joël 1963: 73; Hoijer 1956: 223. Polysemy: 'moon / eye'. Literally 'his eye' with possr=nɒ́ɣ-ɒ̀ʔ 'eye' q.v. and the fossilized 4th person possessive yi= [Cook 1984: 64].
NUMBER:55
WORD:mountain
Hupa:ninisʼaːn1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 778; Golla 1996: 30, 63. Polysemy: 'country, land / world, surface of the earth / mountain'. Probably to be analyzed as *ninʔ-si-ʔaːn-i 'ground-lies', according to Golla.
Mattole:
Not attested.
Bear River dialect: not attested.
Kato:cʼǝ=s=noː-ʔ2
Goddard 1912: 30; Goddard 1909: 71 No. 2, 76 No. 8-9, 88 No. 14; Curtis 1924: 205. Literally 'this is vertical' with the verbal root =noː 'to be vertical'.
Taldash Galice:naːcʼanʔ3
Hoijer 1973: 55. Morphologically unclear. Looks like a possible match with Hupa ninisʼaːn 'mountain / world' q.v., although a better morphological parallel to the Hupa form is Galice nanʔ-sʼãː 'world, cosmos' [Hoijer 1973: 55].
Upper Inlet Tanaina:tʁǝlay-1
Kari 2007: 105, 354; Kari 1977: 120; Kari 1996: 61. The possessed form is regular: possr=tʁǝlay-a [Kari 1996: 61] (in [Kari 2007: 105], quoted with a typo: possr=tʁǝlay-aʔ).
Outer Inlet Tanaina:tʁili-1
Kari 2007: 105, 354; Kari 1977: 120; Kari 1996: 61. The possessed form is irregular: possr=tʁil-ʔa (in [Kari 2007: 105], quoted with a typo: possr=tʁilʔu).
Inland Tanaina:tʁili-1
Kari 2007: 105, 354; Kari 1977: 120; Kari 1996: 61; Wassillie 1979: 65. The possessed form is irregular: possr=tʁil-ʔu.
Iliamna Tanaina:tʁili-1
Kari 2007: 105, 354; Kari 1977: 120; Kari 1996: 61. The possessed form is irregular: possr=tʁil-ʔu.
TFN_NOTES:
The original, synchronically obsolete term for 'mountain' is cǝɬ (all dialects) [Kari 2007: 105; Kari 1977: 120].
As noted in [Kari 1996: 61], Tanaina tʁǝlay ~ tʁili 'mountain' sounds similar to the terms for 'mountain' or specific mountains in some other Athapaskan languages such as Ahtena, Lower Tanana and so on, where they can be analyzed as a nominalized form of the classificatory verb 'to handle plural objects' (Ahtena =laː, Lower Tanana =lo), i.e., 'mountain' as 'plural objects that are suspended' or 'plural objects are in a line'. The Tanaina words, however, are unanalyzable within the Tanaina morphology, thus they should be rather considered loanwords from a neighboring Athapaskan lect (at least the Upper Inlet shape tʁǝlay directly corresponds to the Ahtena form).
Central Ahtena:t=ʁe=laː-y4
Kari 1990: 263, 555; Kari & Buck 1975: 81; Smelcer 2010: 98.
Western Ahtena: t=ʁi=laː-y [Kari 1990: 263, 555; Kari & Buck 1975: 81; Smelcer 2010: 98].
Mentasta Ahtena:ceɬ5
Kari 1990: 172, 555; Kari & Buck 1975: 81; Smelcer 2010: 98.
AHT_NOTES:
It is explicitly noted in [Kari 1990: 172] that ceɬ is most common in Mentasta, whereas tʁelaːy (with the variants) is more common elsewhere.
Non-Mentasta tʁelaːy (> Lower qalaːy), glossed as 'mountain, mountain range', is a new formation, which apparently contains the very productive classificatory verb =laː / =l=yaː 'to handle plural objects' [Kari 1990: 264]. Thus 'mountain, mountain range' as 'plural objects are in a line' vel sim. (for the qualifier or thematic chain t=ʁ= see [Kari 1990: 130]). This is an areal term for 'mountain', see [Kari 1996: 61] for details.
Arnold et al. 2009: 178; Holton 2000: 345; Brean & Milanowski 1979: 13; McRoy 1973: 7; Shinen 1958: 13.
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):tθaɬ5
Milanowski 2009: 16. Glossed with polysemy: 'mountain / hill'. In [Milanowski 2009: 79], the collocation tθaɬ čʰoh is quoted as a default expression for 'mountain', literally 'big tθaɬ'.
Distinct from ceːndah 'cliff, a steep drop-off from a hill, mountain, or riverbank' [Milanowski 2009: 16].
Distinct from tθʰa with polysemy: 'large stone / mountain' [Kari 1994: 306] (apparently not a frequent expression for 'mountain').
Distinct from nominalized tǝ=ɣ=i=lʌ-yi 'mountain range, Alaska Range' [Kari 1994: 186] from the classificatory verb =lʌ 'plural objects are in position; sg. rope-like object is in position'.
Central Carrier:c̪ʌɬ5
Poser 1998/2013: 154, 817; Poser 2011a: 143; Antoine et al. 1974: 97, 319.
A difficult case with two candidates for the slot:
1) šʌs̪ glossed as 'hill, knoll, timbered mountain' in [Poser 1998/2013: 446, 817] and 'small mountain' in [Antoine et al. 1974: 211, 319] (the variant -yʌs̪ in archaic compounds).
2) c̪ʌɬ glossed as 'mountain above timberline' in [Poser 1998/2013: 154, 817] and generally 'mountain' in [Poser 2011a: 143; Antoine et al. 1974: 97, 319]. Cf. also c̪ʌɬ-zai 'bare mountain' [Poser 1998/2013: 154, 817].
Apparently c̪ʌɬ should be chosen to represent the Swadesh meaning. In particular, it seems to be more frequently used than šʌs̪. Cf. some examples with c̪ʌɬ: "They see the blue grouse only in the mountains" [Antoine et al. 1974: 80], "There are many flowers on the mountains" [Antoine et al. 1974: 97], "The smoke is ascending from between the mountains" [Antoine et al. 1974: 102], "He is reaching the top of the steep mountain" [Antoine et al. 1974: 103], "He is camping overnight on the mountain" [Antoine et al. 1974: 170], "Whenever we go up to the mountain mother brings a ground-hog blanket for us" [Antoine et al. 1974: 175], "He is buried in an avalanche on the mountain" [Antoine et al. 1974: 194].
Koyukon:ƛǝɬ5
Jetté & Jones 2000: 156, 958; Jones 1978: 106. Glossed as 'mountain, large hill, range of mountains or high hills'.
A second candidate is sǝɬ (retained historical y- is the possessed form: possr=yǝl-ǝʔ) 'mountain, ridge, mountain range' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 692]. As noted by Jones, sǝɬ is used mainly in toponyms, the more common term for 'mountain' is ƛǝɬ.
Distinct from tǝʁiːloːyǝ ~ tǝʁiːloːyiː 'mountain range, Alaska Range' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 407; Jones 1978: 106]. In [Jetté & Jones 2000], quoted as an Upper dialect form; if so, it is likely a borrowing from Lower Tanana tǝ=ɣ=i=lʌ-yi 'mountain range, Alaska Range'. In [Jones 1978], quoted as a Central dialect form; if so, Koyukon tǝ=ʁ=iː=loː-yǝ literally means 'those that are in a line' from the generic classificatory verb =loː 'plural objects are in position'.
Degexit'an:t=eː=loː-y4
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 42; Chapman 1914: 230. Literally 'plural objects are in a line' with the generic classificatory verb =loː 'to handle pl. obj.' [Kari 1976: 34].
Sarsi:čʰìs ~ cʰìs7
Hoijer & Joël 1963: 68. Glossed as 'hill, mountain', a not very reliable item.
NUMBER:56
WORD:mouth
Hupa:possr=sah1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 782; Golla 1996: 63; Golla 1964: 112. There are two words for 'mouth' in Hupa:
1) possr=sah 'oral cavity', glossed by Golla as 'the inside of the mouth' and 'mouth (interior)'. The variant saː- is used as an incorporate element, e.g., possr=saː=s=tʰaːn 'tongue' q.v. (literally '(inside) the mouth (q.v.) it (stick-like object) lies'), etc. [Sapir & Golla 2001: 782]. Note the alternative variant possr=saːqʼ, quoted in [Golla 1996: 63] for 'the inside of the mouth', which actually looks like the incorporate saː- with the postposition -eqʼ 'inside' / -qʼ '(locative)' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 729, 781; Golla 1970: 225].
2) possr=ta-ʔ 'mouth opening and lips', glossed by Golla as 'mouth, lips', although for 'lips' per se there is an alternative specialized expression: possr=taː-sicʼ, literally 'mouth + skin' [Golla 1996: 57].
Browsing through [Golla 1970; Golla 1996] and other sources does not permit to make a definite choice; therefore, we treat =sah and =ta-ʔ as synonyms.
Mattole:possr=taʔ2
Li 1930: 127. The synchronic root is =taʔ, cf. the compounds possr=taʔ-pˈakʷ 'lip' [Li 1930: 126] (with pakʷ '?') and possr=taʔ-cʰˈeʔs 'lip' [Li 1930: 131] (with =cʰˈeʔs 'skin' q.v.).
The second root sa 'mouth, oral cavity' is retained in the compound possr=sa-s-tʰˈaːn 'tongue' q.v., literally '(inside) the mouth it (stick-like object) lies' [Li 1930: 131].
Bear River dialect: possr=tːa 'mouth' [Goddard 1929: 318].
Hoijer 1973: 53; Hoijer 1956: 223; Landar 1977: 295. Synchronically, either =taʔ or =ta-ʔ: both taʔ- and taː- variants are attested as the second element of compounds, see [Hoijer 1973: 53].
Upper Inlet Tanaina:possr=yaqʼ3
Kari 2007: 89, 354; Kari 1977: 99.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:possr=zaqʼ3
Kari 2007: 89, 354; Kari 1977: 99.
Inland Tanaina:possr=zaqʼ3
Kari 2007: 89, 354; Kari 1977: 99.
Iliamna Tanaina:possr=zaqʼ3
Kari 2007: 89, 354; Kari 1977: 99.
TFN_NOTES:
possr=zaqʼ (Upper Inlet regular possr=yaqʼ) is glossed by Kari simply as 'mouth', whereas possr=tu (Outer Inlet irregular possr=ti) - as 'interior of mouth'.
In the Talkeetna subdialect of Upper Inlet, instead of innovative possr=zaqʼ, the old word possr=yu 'mouth' is retained [Kari 2007: 89; Kari 1977: 99] (the expected form in other Tanaina lects is **possr=zu).
This allows us to reconstruct the binary opposition in Proto-Tanaina: *=tu 'oral cavity' / *=zu 'mouth opening' without a generic term for 'mouth' per se.
The root tu is used in the compounds for 'lip': (1) Upper Inlet, Outer Inlet possr=tu-punu, Inland, Iliamna possr=tu-vunu 'lips, around the mouth', literally 'edge of tu'; (2) Upper Inlet possr=tu-pǝɬ-a, Outer Inlet possr=tu-pǝɬ-ʔa, Inland possr=tu-vǝɬ-a, Iliamna possr=tu-vǝɬ-ʔa 'lips', literally 'vǝɬ of tu' [Kari 2007: 89; Kari 1977: 99].
The root tu is also retained as the verbal incorporated morpheme tu= 'mouth' (reduced variants ta=, tǝ=) in all the main dialects (Upper Inlet [Lovick 2005: 93 ex. 32a, 142 ex. 4.28a, 160 ex. 4.48a], Outer Inlet [Boraas 2010: 125], Inland [Tenenbaum 1978: 147, 163]) and as the postposition obj-tu 'in obj's mouth; affecting obj with the mouth' (Outer Inlet [Boraas 2010: 24], Inland [Tenenbaum 1978: 200]).
The modern term =zaqʼ originates from the old root for 'throat', which is also attested in Tanaina as Upper Inlet possr=yaqʼ-a 'larynx; voice', Outer Inlet possr=zaqʼ-a 'larynx; voice', Inland, Iliamna possr=n=zaqʼ-a 'larynx', possr=zaqʼ-a 'voice' [Kari 2007: 90, 305].
Central Ahtena:possr=zaː1
Kari 1990: 447, 555; Kari & Buck 1975: 63.
Lower Ahtena: possr=zaː [Kari 1990: 447, 555; Kari & Buck 1975: 63]. Alphonse Pinart (the 1870's) quotes 'mouth' as possr=zaː-t [Kari 1990: 447] with a suffixal extention.
Western Ahtena: possr=zaː [Kari 1990: 447, 555; Kari & Buck 1975: 63].
Mentasta Ahtena:possr=zaː1
Kari 1990: 447, 555; Kari & Buck 1975: 63.
AHT_NOTES:
In [Smelcer 2010: 46], possr=zaː is inaccurately glossed as 'lips' (there is no word for 'mouth' in this dictionary).
Distinct from possr=ta-ʔ 'beak, bill of bird, snout of animal', incorporated or in compounds ta- 'orifice, mouth, opening of container' (all dialects) [Kari 1990: 136]. The expression for 'lips' is based on this root: possr=ta-pel-eʔ (all dialect) [Kari 1990: 104, 136, 547; Kari & Buck 1975: 63], literally 'pel of ta' (with pel '?').
Dogrib:possr=wà1
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 46, 190. As the verbal incorporated element: ʍà=, e.g., in ʍà=...=ʔṍ 'to keep in the mouth, chew on' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 117].
Distinct from possr=éh=tà 'chin / beak, bill of a bird' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 26]; the first element =éh= is a desemanticized prefix, the same as in possr=éh=kò ‘knee’ q.v.
Distinct from possr=tã́ː, glossed as 'mouth area, lips' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 40].
North Slavey (Hare):possr=wá-ʔ1
Rice 1978: 105, 154; Hoijer 1956: 222. In compounds, the variant wà- is used.
Distinct from possr=tá-ʔ 'beak' [Rice 1978: 43].
Tanacross:possr=θ̬àː1
Arnold et al. 2009: 178; Holton 2000: 345; Brean & Milanowski 1979: 3; McRoy 1973: 8; Shinen 1958: 3.
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):possr=ðaː-t ~ possr=θaː-t1
Milanowski 2009: 23, 70. For the final -t, see notes on Lower Tanana.
Kari 1994: 92, 439. The variant ðʌ is used as the first element of compounds, the incorporated morpheme and the postposition 'into the mouth of obj' [Kari 1994: 92]; therefore, final -t in possr=ðʌ-t should be analyzed as a suffixal extension.
Central Carrier:possr=z̪e1
Poser 1998/2013: 590, 817; Poser 2011a: 143; Antoine et al. 1974: 56, 319.
Koyukon:possr=loː ~ possr=loː-t1
Jetté & Jones 2000: 404, 959; Jones 1978: 106. Both forms mean 'mouth / in the mouth', final -t is the area nominalizer [Jetté & Jones 2000: 495].
Distinct from possr=toː-ʔ 'snout of mammal, beak of bird; opening, neck, rim of container', possr=toː-nǝ 'around the (human) mouth; around the edge of' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 143, 144] (the suffix -nǝ means 'around' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 461]).
Degexit'an:possr=ðoː ~ possr=ðoː-t1
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 34; Chapman 1914: 219. The suffixless form possr=ðoː is from [Chapman 1914] (and is also attested in the Kuskokwim dialect [Kari 1978: 34]). Other sources give it with the area nominalizer -t (as in Koyukon q.v.). The unclear phonetic variant possr=ðaː-t 'mouth' is added in [Kari 1978: 34]. In incorporation, the morpheme ðoː- 'mouth' is used [Taff et al. 2007].
Distinct from possr=toː-ʔ 'beak' [Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 14].
Sarsi:possr=zà-ʔ1
Hoijer & Joël 1963: 69; Hoijer 1956: 222.
NUMBER:56
WORD:mouth
Hupa:possr=ta-ʔ2
Sapir & Golla 2001: 745, 746; Golla 1996: 63; Golla 1964: 111. The synchronic root is rather taː then taʔ, cf. -taː- in various compounds [Sapir & Golla 2001: 745], although taʔ is also used in compounds: possr=taʔ-kʸinč-eʔ 'gums' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 746; Golla 1996: 42] and possr=taʔ-sicʼ 'lips' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 746], although the latter is quoted as possr=taː-sicʼ in [Golla 1996: 57].
Mattole:
Kato:
Taldash Galice:
Upper Inlet Tanaina:possr=tu2
Kari 2007: 89, 354; Kari 1977: 99.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:possr=ti2
Kari 2007: 89, 354; Kari 1977: 99. =ti instead of the expected =tu is unclear.
Inland Tanaina:possr=tu2
Kari 2007: 89, 354; Kari 1977: 99.
Iliamna Tanaina:possr=tu2
Kari 2007: 89, 354; Kari 1977: 99.
Central Ahtena:
Mentasta Ahtena:
Dogrib:
North Slavey (Hare):
Tanacross:
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):
Lower Tanana (Minto):
Central Carrier:
Koyukon:
Degexit'an:
Sarsi:
NUMBER:57
WORD:name
Hupa:possr=oː=ʍe-ʔ1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 796; Golla 1996: 65. The prefix o- can be a "semitransitive" marker, cf. [Golla 1970: 164]. Also functions as a verbal root: =ʍeː 'to call by name, to be named' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 796; Golla 1996: 65; Golla 1970: 164].
Mattole:
Not attested. Cf. the verb =xi-ʔ [perf.] 'to call by name' [Li 1930: 80].
Bear River dialect: not attested.
Kato:
Not attested. Cf. the verb =yiː 'to name, call by name' [Goddard 1912: 61].
Taldash Galice:possr=oː=ši-ʔ1
Hoijer 1973: 60; Hoijer 1956: 223. Derived from the verb =šiː [imperf.] / =ši-ʔ [perf.] 'to name, call by name' [Hoijer 1973: 71]. Can be used without obligatory possessor prefixes: ʔoː=šiʔ.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:possr=i=yi ~ possr=i=ya1
Kari 2007: 304, 354. The variant =i=ya apparently < *=i=yi-a with the optional izafet suffix.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:possr=i=ži1
Kari 2007: 304, 354.
Inland Tanaina:possr=i=ži1
Kari 2007: 304, 354.
Iliamna Tanaina:possr=i=ži1
Kari 2007: 304, 354.
TFN_NOTES:
Polysemy: 'name, personal name / incantation, verbal spell' in all the dialects. A deverbative form from the verb =ži (not documented as a separated entry) with the conative prefix =i= [Tenenbaum 1978: 159; Boraas 2010: 119].
Central Ahtena:possr=ʔu=ze-ʔ1
Kari 1990: 460, 557; Kari & Buck 1975: 168; Smelcer 2010: 100.
Western Ahtena: possr=ʔu=ze-ʔ [Kari 1990: 460, 557; Kari & Buck 1975: 168; Smelcer 2010: 100].
Mentasta Ahtena:possr=u=ze-ʔ1
Kari 1990: 460, 557; Kari & Buck 1975: 168; Smelcer 2010: 100.
AHT_NOTES:
A deverbative form from the verb =u=...=ziː 'to call smb.'s name, to name' [Kari 1990: 461] with the conative prefix =(ʔ)u= [Kari 1990: 68].
Dogrib:possr=í=zì ~ possr=ĩ́=zì1
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 42, 191. A deverbative form from the verb =í=...=zìː 'to name smth./smb., pronounce' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 128].
North Slavey (Hare):possr=ĩ̀=zì1
Rice 1978: 113, 155; Rice 1989: 212; Hoijer 1956: 222. Cf. the cognate verb =zì 'to name (trans.), call by name' [Rice 1978: 380, 485].
Tanacross:possr=ùː=s̬í-ʔ1
Arnold et al. 2009: 181; Holton 2000: 345; Shinen 1958: 17. Nominalization of the verb =ù=s̬ìh 'to call by name' [Arnold et al. 2009: 72; Holton 2000: 349]. Initial ù(ː)= is the thematic prefix.
Kari 1994: 353, 442; Tuttle 2009: 140. A deverbative form from the verb obj=u=ʐi 'to call obj's name' [Kari 1994: 353]; -u- is the "conative" prefix [Kari 1994: 6].
Jetté & Jones 2000: 727, 962; Jones 1978: 108. Alienable possession. Possessed: possr=ʔuː=z-ǝʔ. A deverbative form from the verb obj=(ʔ)uː=ziː 'to name obj, call obj by name' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 727] (-(ʔ)uː- is the "conative" prefix [Jetté & Jones 2000: 12]) reanalyzed as the nominal root uːs.
Degexit'an:possr=ʔeː=ʐeː-ʔ1
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 94; Chapman 1914: 210.
Sarsi:possr=zì-ʔ1
Hoijer & Joël 1963: 69; Hoijer 1956: 223; Li 1930b: 22. A deverbative form from the verb =zì [imperf.] / =zí [perf.] 'to call' [Li 1930b: 22].
NUMBER:58
WORD:neck
Hupa:possr=qʼos1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 782; Golla 1996: 65.
Mattole:possr=kʼˈos1
Li 1930: 130.
Bear River dialect: two specific terms are documented, possr=kʼos 'back of the neck' and possr=niš 'front of the neck' [Goddard 1929: 318].
Kato:possr=tʼai2
Goddard 1912: 22; Curtis 1924: 201.
Taldash Galice:possr=kʼʷas1
Hoijer 1973: 57; Hoijer 1956: 223.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:possr=qʼǝs1
Kari 2007: 90, 354; Kari 1977: 100.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:possr=qʼǝs1
Kari 2007: 90, 354; Kari 1977: 100.
Inland Tanaina:possr=qʼǝs1
Kari 2007: 90, 354; Kari 1977: 100; Wassillie 1979: 67.
Iliamna Tanaina:possr=qʼǝs1
Kari 2007: 90, 354; Kari 1977: 100.
Central Ahtena:possr=qʼos1
Kari 1990: 259, 558; Kari & Buck 1975: 64; Smelcer 2010: 46.
Scottie Creek: possr=kʼòh 'neck' [John 1997: 17]. In [John 1997: 15], erroneously quoted as possr=kʰoh.
Lower Tanana (Minto):possr=kʼʊθ1
Kari 1994: 171, 443.
Central Carrier:possr=c̪ʼil-čʰʌn3
Poser 1998/2013: 508, 823; Poser 2011a: 145; Antoine et al. 1974: 51, 320. Literally 'handle of elbow(s)' with possr=c̪ʼil 'elbow' [Poser 1998/2013: 508] and possr=čʰʌn 'handle of broom, canoe paddle, or similar object, stem of plant' [Poser 1998/2013: 102]. Perhaps originally 'handle of upper arms'.
Cf. possr=c̪ʼil-yoh 'nape of neck' [Poser 1998/2013: 508], literally 'in elbow(s)' (*'in upper arms'?) with the postposition -yoh 'in' [Poser 1998/2013: 563], or 'house of elbow(s)' with yoh 'house' [Poser 1998/2013: 563].
Koyukon:possr=qʼuɬ1
Jetté & Jones 2000: 368, 962; Jones 1978: 108.
Degexit'an:possr=qʼʊθ1
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 34.
Distinct from possr=ðaːn 'front of neck' [Taff et al. 2007], glossed as 'around one's neck' in [Kari 1978: 34] and simply as 'neck' in [Chapman 1914: 219].
Sarsi:possr=kʼús1
Hoijer & Joël 1963: 69; Hoijer 1956: 222.
NUMBER:59
WORD:new
Hupa:qʼaŋ1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 780; Golla 1996: 65. Polysemy: 'recently, just now / new'. In [Sapir & Golla 2001], qʼaŋ is only glossed as 'recently' (there are no expressions for 'new' in this dictionary); in [Golla 1996], qʼaŋ is transcribed as qʼuŋ.
Mattole:
Not attested.
Bear River dialect: not attested.
Kato:
Not attested.
Taldash Galice:
Not attested.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:qʼu-ti-ti ~ qʼu-ti-χ-ya-ʔa2
Kari 2007: 164, 354.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:qʼu-ti-ti ~ qʼu-ti-qʰǝ-ya-ʔa2
Kari 2007: 164, 354.
Inland Tanaina:qʼu-ti-ti ~ qʼu-ti-qʰǝ-ya-ʔa2
Kari 2007: 164, 354; Wassillie 1979: 68.
Iliamna Tanaina:qʼu-ti-ti ~ qʼu-ti-qʰǝ-ya-ʔa2
Kari 2007: 164, 354.
TFN_NOTES:
The forms for 'new' are derived from the temporal adverb qʼu-ti 'now' (all dialects) [Kari 2007: 164], which in turn contains the adverb qʼu 'already, just now' (all dialects) [Kari 2007: 163], modified with the rare adverbial suffix -ti (for which cf. the Upper Inlet multiplicative adverbs cʼiɬ-ti 'once', nu-ti 'twice', and so on [Kari 2007: 322]). For the second suffix -ti see notes on Ahtena.
The additional morpheme chains -qʰǝ-ya-ʔa and Upper Inlet -χ-ya-ʔa are less clear.
Central Ahtena:ʔa-tiː-ti2
Kari 1990: 250, 558; Kari & Buck 1975: 96; Smelcer 2010: 118.
Western Ahtena: ʔa-tiː-ti [Kari 1990: 250, 558; Kari & Buck 1975: 96; Smelcer 2010: 118].
Mentasta Ahtena:qʼa-tiː-ti2
Kari 1990: 250, 558; Kari & Buck 1975: 96; Smelcer 2010: 118.
AHT_NOTES:
A noun-like adjective. It should be noted that in [Kari 1990: 153, 250, 558], ʔa-tiː-ti / qʼa-tiː-ti (Mentasta) is glossed as the substantive 'a new thing', but cf. the examples for attributive use: "I am expecting to learn some new (ʔatiːti) words" [Kari 1990: 85], "New (ʔatiːti) words are pleasing to me" [Kari 1990: 263].
Derived from the adverb qʼa-tiː with the occasional variant ʔa-tiː 'now' (all dialects) [Kari 1990: 250]; Kari does not mention dialectal distribution of qʼa-tiː and ʔa-tiː; the latter can be treated as a dissimilated variant of the former. This adverb is derived from the emphatic particle qʼa [Kari 1990: 250].
Medial -tiː is the temporal adverbial suffix [Kari 1990: 153]; final -ti is the nominal suffix [Kari 1990: 154].
Dogrib:=kòː3
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 48, 191; Marinakis et al. 2007: 157. Polysemy: 'new / fresh / young'. A suffix or noun-like adjective, enclitically attached to the noun.
North Slavey (Hare):ʔè=kʰònì ~ ʔè=kʰònè4
Rice 1978: 186, 567. Polysemy: 'new / young / young person'. A noun-like adjective; initial ʔe- is the unspecified pronoun. Cf. the examples: "I bought new shoes yesterday" [Rice 1978: 318], "I have a new skirt" [Rice 1978: 373]. A cognate word is kʰònè 'already' [Rice 1978: 562].
Tanacross:kʼa-ti-ti2
Shinen 1958: 20. Not found in other sources. Tonal and quantitative transcription are unclear. For the ti-suffixes see notes on Ahtena.
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):kʼaː-tu-ʔu2
Milanowski 2009: 72. A noun-like adjective, found in the example "He is showing us a new dance". Derived from the adverb kʼaː-tuːʔ ~ kʼah-tuːʔ 'now, right now' [Milanowski 2009: 19].
Lower Tanana (Minto):
Not documented properly.
Central Carrier:ʔan-ti-t5
Poser 1998/2013: 27, 824; Antoine et al. 1974: 3. Polysemy: 'new / now'; the morphological analysis is in accordance with similar forms in other languages. The variant ʔan-ti-ti is also attested. Cf. some examples: "He is moving into the new house" [Antoine et al. 1974: 77], "He is broke because he bought a new car" [Antoine et al. 1974: 122], "He bought a new bed for his children" [Antoine et al. 1974: 131], "He is finishing the new house" [Antoine et al. 1974: 135], "We are going to buy a new stove" [Antoine et al. 1974: 206].
The adjective ʔʌyu 'another' [Poser 1998/2013: 71] can be translated as 'new' in some contexts: "He is making new snowshoes" [Antoine et al. 1974: 2], "I am going to buy a new mattress for my bed" [Antoine et al. 1974: 129].
Koyukon:ǝtʼǝ-ʁ-ɬ-tiː-ʔiː6
Jetté & Jones 2000: 127, 963; Jones 1978: 109. Cf. the attested examples: "she has new boots" [Jetté & Jones 2000: 127], "My mother has a new sewing machine" [Jones 1978: 99], "He is shopping for new clothes" [Jones 1978: 144]. This is the Central and Upper form. Derived from the adverb ǝtʼǝ-ʁ(ǝ)-ɬ ~ ǝtʼǝ-ʁ(ǝ)-ɬ-tǝ 'right now, recently, just now' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 127, 546] < ǝtʼǝ 'right, correct, appropriate, genuine, actual' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 546].
In the Lower dialect, the parallel formation ǝƛʼǝ-ʁ-ɬ-tiː-ʔiː 'new' is used < Lower ǝƛʼǝ-ʁ-ɬ-tǝ ~ ǝƛʼaː-ʁ-ɬ-tǝ 'right now, recently, just now' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 127, 597].
Degexit'an:qʼoː-teː-d ~ qʼoː-teː-t ~ qʼoː-teː2
Taff et al. 2007; Chapman 1914: 230. The forms qʼoː-teː~ qʼoː-teː-t are quoted with polysemy: 'new / ago, a while ago' in [Taff et al. 2007]. Cf. the examples: "He's building a new house", "We're getting a new cupboard", "I want a new kicker", "He has a new hat", "His parka has a new ruff", "She is singing a new song" [Taff et al. 2007].
Sarsi:kʰa-hi-ta7
Goddard 1915: 212. Attested in the only example: "They gave him a new blanket" [Goddard 1915: 213]. For the adverbial suffix -hi-, cf. tàà 'here' [Cook 1984: 41] > táá-hì 'now' [Cook 1984: 52].
NUMBER:60
WORD:night
Hupa:xi=ƛʼeʔ ~ xu=ƛʼeʔ ~ xa=ƛʼeʔ1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 801; Golla 1996: 65; Golla 1964: 117. The first element xV- is not entirely clear; it may be a permutation of the root xiɬ 'dark, murky color' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 801; Golla 1996: 24; Golla 1964: 116].
Mattole:ča=kʷo=l=xˈin2
Li 1930: 126. Literally 'it is dark here'. Descriptive expression with the verb =l=xiŋ (< *=l=xin) 'to be dark, black' [Li 1930: 80] (cf. notes on 'black'). Initial ča- is the verbal prefix 'darkness' [Li 1930: 62]; -kʷo- is the prefix referring to place or weather [Li 1930: 61].
Bear River dialect: ɬʔetaŋkʰo, an unclear formation, glossed as 'night, eight or nine o'clock' [Goddard 1929: 318].
Kato:ƛʼeʔ1
Goddard 1912: 19. Contra Goddard, in [Curtis 1924: 205], 'night' is quoted as something like cʰeut - an unclear form.
It is not entirely clear how the Proto-Tanaina term for 'night' should be reconstructed (tʰǝc or ƛʼaqʼ). Could ƛʼaqʼ be analyzed as ƛʼa-qʼ with the postposition -qʼ 'on the surface of obj, on top of obj / like obj, copying obj' (Outer Inlet [Boraas 2010: 31], Inland [Tenenbaum 1978: 215])?
Central Ahtena:tʰec3
Kari 1990: 334, 559; Kari & Buck 1975: 91; Smelcer 2010: 116.
Distinct from the word for 'evening': xèh-cʼõ̀, glossed as 'evening, night' in [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 121], literally 'before the darkness' with xèh 'darkness' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 121] and cʼõ̀ 'until, before' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 106].
North Slavey (Hare):tʰèwè3
Rice 1978: 96, 156; Hoijer 1956: 222.
Tanacross:tʰèdᶞ3
Arnold et al. 2009: 183; Holton 2000: 345; Brean & Milanowski 1979: 13; McRoy 1973: 7; Shinen 1958: 22.
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):tʰadn3
Milanowski 2009: 24, 80. Final dn < *tǝ.
Northway: tʰadn 'night' [Milanowski 2007: 13].
Scottie Creek: tʰɤt 'night' [John 1997: 65].
Lower Tanana (Minto):tʰǝtθ3
Kari 1994: 236, 444; Tuttle 2009: 143.
Central Carrier:tʰʌz3
Poser 1998/2013: 474, 824.
Distinct from the adverb ʔʌ(-)ɬ-c̪is̪ 'at night' [Poser 1998/2013: 57, 824], which is glossed, however, simply as 'night' in [Poser 2011a: 146; Antoine et al. 1974: 35, 320]; either a nominal compound or a fossilized verbal form from an unclear root.
Koyukon:ƛʰǝt-ǝ3
Jetté & Jones 2000: 576, 964; Jones 1978: 110. Polysemy: 'night / at night', morphologically an adverb with the spatial/temporal suffix -ǝ [Jetté & Jones 2000: 10]. In the Toklat-Bearpaw subdialect of the Upper dialect, the non-metathesized substantive tʰǝƛ 'night' is retained [Jetté & Jones 2000: 514].
Degexit'an:tθʰǝt-aː-ŋǝθ3
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 47; Chapman 1914: 216. Polysemy: 'night / at night'; glossed only as 'last night' in [Kari 1978: 47]. Historically 'long night', '[all] night long' with the old root tθʰǝt 'night' and ŋǝθ 'long' q.v. Corresponds to Koyukon ƛʰǝtǝ χo-naːɬ 'all night long'.
Cf. some examples for tθʰǝt-aː-ŋǝθ 'night, at night': "So then, one night, some one scratched her head while she slept" [Chapman 1914: 107], "So, for two days and two nights he remained in the house" [Chapman 1914: 141], "Bats fly around at night", "I sat up at night", "He came in the middle of the night", "Last night he was wild" [Taff et al. 2007].
Western Ahtena: possr=en=cʰiːs [Kari 1990: 390, 559; Kari & Buck 1975: 62; Smelcer 2010: 45].
Mentasta Ahtena:possr=en=cʰiːs1
Kari 1990: 390, 559; Kari & Buck 1975: 62; Smelcer 2010: 45.
AHT_NOTES:
Synchronously, explained by Kari as a deverbative formation from =cʰen 'to smell [trans., intrans.]' (the ablaut imperfective stem of the transitional or customary aspect is =cʰiːs < *=cʰiːn-s) [Kari 1990: 380, 447] plus the gender exponent -n- [Kari 1990: 285].
Dogrib:possr=ĩ́=ɣõ̀2
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 42, 192; Siemens et al. 2007: 31. It is quoted in [Siemens et al. 2007] and therefore should be the default expression for 'nose' in modern Dogrib.
The second candidate is the more archaic term possr=ĩ́-cʰĩ́ 'nose' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 42, 192].
Of the two words, at least possr=ĩ́-ɣõ̀ is also applicable to animals: w=ĩ́-ɣõ̀ː 'its nose' [Siemens et al. 2007: 82].
North Slavey (Hare):possr=ĩ̀=ɣṍ-ʔ2
Rice 1978: 60, 156; Rice 1989: 212; Hoijer 1956: 222. The same root without the izafet suffix: possr=ĩ̀=ɣõ̀ 'nostril, inside nose' [Rice 1978: 60].
The old root sĩ is apparently retained in the compound =sĩ́-ɬíl-éʔ 'snot' [Rice 1978: 91].
Tanacross:possr=ìn=cʰĩ̀ː1
Arnold et al. 2009: 185; Holton 2000: 345; Brean & Milanowski 1979: 24; McRoy 1973: 8; Shinen 1958: 3. Cf. the verb =h=cʰèn̥ 'to smell (trans.)', =l=cʰèn̥ 'to smell (intrans.)' [Arnold et al. 2009: 240].
Kari 1994: 291, 445; Tuttle 2009: 144. Prefixal -ǝn- is a "gender" morpheme [Kari 1994: 194].
Central Carrier:possr=n=in=cʰis1
Poser 1998/2013: 360, 825; Poser 2011a: 148; Antoine et al. 1974: 40, 320. Note the doubled gender n-prefix.
The alienable stem in=cʰis 'nose, snout (of hog), nozzle' is also attested [Poser 1998/2013: 206].
Distinct from the obsolete term possr=in=čʰʌs 'nose, snout' [Poser 1998/2013: 205].
Koyukon:possr=ǝn=cʰǝy̥1
Jetté & Jones 2000: 638, 965; Jones 1978: 110. Polysemy: 'nose / muzzle of animal'. The initial element is the anatomical gender exponent ǝn-/nǝ- [Jetté & Jones 2000: 460].
Degexit'an:possr=aːn̥=cʰeː1
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 33; Chapman 1914: 216. In [Taff et al. 2007], the innovative variant possr=aːn̥=čʼǝ of unclear nature is also quoted.
Sarsi:possr=cʰíh1
Hoijer & Joël 1963: 69; Hoijer 1956: 222.
Distinct from possr=ɣɒ̀ʔ 'beak (of a bird), snout (of animal)' [Hoijer & Joël 1963: 69].
NUMBER:62
WORD:not
Hupa:toː-1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 752; Golla 1996: 66; Golla 1996a: 381; Golla 1970: 291. The verbal prefix toː- is used for both indicative and prohibitive. In prohibitive, the predicate is additionally modified with the enclitic -heh 'despite, even if' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 756; Golla 1996a: 383; Golla 1970: 291].
Mattole:toː-1
Li 1930: 128 sub toːšxˈiʔ, 143 "He did not kill the people", 145 sub No. 9. Verbal prefix (or particle) toː-, expressing negation of assertion. In the prohibitive form, the verb is modified with toː- and the additional prefix ɣi- ~ gi- [Li 1930: 34].
Bear River dialect: not attested.
Kato:toː-1
Goddard 1912: 41. The verbal prefix (or particle) toː- expresses negation of assertion. The prohibitive pattern is unclear. Cf. the verb =toːʔ (< *=toː-ʔ [perf.]?) 'to be none, do not exist' [Goddard 1912: 70].
Taldash Galice:toː-1
Landar 1977: 294 No. 8, 295 No. 69, 85. The prohibitive exponent is not documented.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:
Not attested. Cf. the prohibitive, which can be expressed in one of the following ways:
1) the verbal enclitic -i, as in [Lovick 2005: 45 ex. 2.7, 160 ex. 4.47c].
2) the verbal enclitic -laki, as in [Lovick 2005: 44 ex. 2.5c, 225 ex. 6.13c].
Outer Inlet Tanaina:kʼuštʼa2
Boraas 2010: 86-89. According to [Boraas 2010], negation of assertion is expressed by the combination of the particle kʼuštʼa 'not' + the verbal confix z-...-*V in imperfective, future and customary, and similarly by the particle kʼuštʼa 'not' + the confix i-...-*V in perfective and stative imperfective. The morpheme -*V is an etymological and morphophonological unit, phonetically realized as a zero, but causing the voicing of root final fricatives (i.e., -ɬ > -l and presumably other fricatives in the old intervocalic position).
Prohibitive (i.e., negative imperative) can be expressed in one of the three ways [Boraas 2010: 89-91]:
1) The particle kʼuštʼa + the enclitic particle -tu.
2) The verbal enclitic -u.
3) The verbal enclitic -iku.
Inland Tanaina:n=čʼu5
Tenenbaum 1978: 112-114; Holton et al. 2004: 32. According to [Tenenbaum 1978; Holton et al. 2004], verbal negation of assertion is expressed by the combination of the proclitic particle n=čʼu 'not' (or n=ʔuʁa ~ n=luʁa 'not yet') + the verbal confix z-...-*V in imperfective, future and customary, and similarly by the particle n=čʼu 'not' + the confix i-...-*V in perfective and stative imperfective. The morpheme -*V is an etymological and morphophonological unit, phonetically realized as a zero, but causing the voicing of root final fricatives (i.e., -ɬ > -l, x > ɣ, χ > ʁ and presumably s > z, š > ž in the old intervocalic position).
Prohibitive (i.e., negative imperative) can be expressed in one of the three ways [Tenenbaum 1978: 114-115; Holton et al. 2004: 32-33]:
1) The proclitic particle n=čʼa + the enclitic particle -tu.
2) The verbal enclitic -ilay.
3) The verbal enclitic -a.
Iliamna Tanaina:
Not attested.
TFN_NOTES:
The confixes z-...-V and i-...-V can be reconstructed as the Proto-Tanaina patterns for negation of assertion. It is possible that discrete negative particles have later been introduced because of the morphological obscuring of the resulting verbal forms. Both Outer Inlet kʼuštʼa and Inland n=čʼu (prohibitive n=čʼa < *n=čʼu-a?) are originally verbal forms, although detailed analysis of these negative copulas is unclear.
We treat n=čʼu, kʼuštʼa, z-, i- and *-V as main negation morphemes.
The reconstruction of the Proto-Tanaina prohibitive pattern is unclear.
Central Ahtena:=e6
Kari 1990: 55, 66.
Lower Ahtena: =e [Kari 1990: 55, 66].
Western Ahtena: =e [Kari 1990: 55, 66].
Mentasta Ahtena:=e6
Kari 1990: 55, 66.
AHT_NOTES:
As can be seen in [Kari 1990: 55, 66, 276, 560], negation of assertion is expressed by the combination of the verbal suffix -e with the particles ʔe=leʔ / liʔi / qʼa=liʔ. The morphological structure of these particles is unclear, but the shared element leʔ / liʔ can be singled out. Initial qʼa- in the Mentasta form is the emphatic particle qʼa [Kari 1990: 250].
Additionally, negated verbal forms contain the prefixes -s- or -i- (in [Kari 1990: 66, 276], these are explicitly called "negative prefixes"), but in reality both -s- and -i- are also used in some positive forms as well, see the schema in [Kari 1990: 55; Kari 1979: 42]; therefore, -s- and -i- cannot be synchronically treated as negative exponents (although see [Kari 1979: 46] for the morphophonological difference between negative -s- and modal -s- in the position immediately before the root).
In all the dialects, prohibitive is expressed by the optative forms, modified with the suffix -(y)ita or -(y)kʸi plus the particle ncʼe [Kari 1990: 68, 404]. In Mentasta, prohibitive can also be expressed by the optative forms, modified with the negative suffix -e plus the particle sonʔo [Kari 1990: 468].
Dogrib:=lé7
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 68; Marinakis et al. 2007: 131, 152, 162. Information from [Marinakis et al. 2007] and a brief analysis of [Saxon & Siemens 1996] suggest that the main exponent of both negation of assertion and prohibitive is the enclitic =lé, attached to the verb.
North Slavey (Hare):=yí=lè ~ =lè7
Rice 1989: 1101. According to [Rice 1989: 1101 ff.], the most common ways to express negation of assertion are:
1) the verbal enclitic =yí=lè or simply =lè [Rice 1989: 1101],
2) the particle tù [Rice 1989: 1103].
The forms (=yí)=lè and tù are mutually interchangeable and also frequently co-occur in the same phrase [Rice 1989: 1104].
Prohibitive is expressed with the help of the same verbal enclitic (=yí)=lè [Rice 1989: 1102] and/or the complex particle ʔèhtíní [Rice 1989: 1105].
Tanacross:kʼá-8
Arnold et al. 2009: 185, 231; Holton 2000: 270. According to [Holton 2000: 270 ff., 231 ff.], negation of assertion is expressed by the combination of the particle/proclitic kʼá- 'not' + the verbal prefix =íː= + the verbal suffix *-V̀. The morpheme *-V̀ is an etymological and morphophonological unit, phonetically realized as a zero, but causing the voicing of root final consonant (i.e., -ɬ > -l, tθ> dᶞ and so on in the old intervocalic position). The prefix =íː= appears in active perfective and stative imperfective verbs which lack an inner subject prefix, whereas in other forms, underlying =íː= is realized as high tone of a prefix vowel. Additionally, in final phrasal position, the root vowel acquires extra-high tone - this is the only case when extra-high tone appears in Tanacross [Holton 2000: 81 ff., 271], otherwise the dropped suffix *-V̀ causes the standard tonal assimilation of the root vowel.
Besides, the verbal suffix *-V̀ may combine with a specific "negative-descriptive" prefix cʼ- attested at least in the verbal stem cʼ=...=t=ndíːg 'do not know' from =t=ndéy̥ 'to know' q.v.
Prohibitive is formed with the particle sṹːʔ ~ sṹʔũ [Holton 2000: 289].
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):kʼa-8
Milanowski 2009: 19, 81; Minoura 1997: 191. According to [Minoura 1997: 191-192], negation of assertion is normally expressed by the combination of the particle/proclitic kʼa- 'not' + the verbal prefix =iː= + the verbal suffix *-ǝ (the latter tends to be dropped in the majority of dialects, causing change of the final consonants). [Minoura 1997] is apparently based on the Scottie Creek dialect (the tonal forms are kʼà- and =ìː=), but the described system should be common for the Upper Tanana varieties, because Minoura does not mention dialectal discrepancies. In [Milanowski 2009: 19, 81], the Tetlin negative particle is quoted in two variants: kʼa- and kʼa-tʼey-.
The aforementioned negative construction competes with the less frequently used negative construction: proclitic làh + enclitic -àʔ [Minoura 1997: 191-192].
Besides, there exists a specific “negative-descriptive” prefix cʼ-, attested in such verbal stems as cʼ=...=t=ndiːk 'do not know' from =t=nãy̥ ‘to know’ [Milanowski 2009: 49, 99] or cʼ=...=l=kãy 'to taste bad’ from =l=kãy ‘to taste good’ [Milanowski 2009: 45].
Prohibitive is formed with the particle sõʔ [Milanowski 2009: 22, 81].
Lower Tanana (Minto):=ã6
Kari 1994: 3; Urschel 2006: 39-40. According to [Urschel 2006], negation of assertion is normally expressed by the combination of the verbal enclitic/suffix -ã (tonal: -ã̌, sporadically denasalizes: -a) + one of the two prefixes: -ð- in non-perfective (i.e., imperfective active, future, optative, progressive) forms or -i- in other forms (i.e., perfective active, perfective stative, imperfective stative).
Additionally, the enclitic -ã may combine with a specific negative prefix ʼ- which is glossed as 'negative descriptive, pejorative' in [Kari 1994: 3, 280]. It is attested in such verbal stems as ʼ=...=kʊt-ã 'to be blunt, stubby, dull' from =kat / =kʊt 'to stab, spear, poke, prick, lance obj with pointed instrument' [Kari 1994: 107] or ʼ=...=t=nik-ã 'do not know (information, song, story)' from =t=nik 'to know (information, song, story)' [Kari 1994: 216], etc.
It should be noted that simple -ã does not obligatorily express negation of assertion, but may occasionally mark negative dimensional adjectives such as cʰǝƛʼ-ã 'small', ti=cʼak-ã 'narrow', =kʊc-ã '(to be) short' etc.
Prohibitive is formed with the particle ʂuʔu [Kari 1994: 356].
Central Carrier:ɬ-7
Poser 2011b: 26.
The Central Carrier system of negation has not yet been described in detail, but it can be seen from the paradigms in [Poser 2011b: 26] that verbal negation of assertion is expressed by the prefix ɬ=. Additionally, the prefix =z= is used in imperfective, future, and optative forms. In imperfective and optative, ɬ=...=z= is supplemented with the suffix -*V, an etymological and morphophonological unit, phonetically realized as zero, but causing the voicing of root final fricatives (i.e., -ɬ > -l and so on in the old intervocalic position).
There is also a special participial form ʔaw 'not' which is used for non-verb negation or for emphatic verb negation: "if placed immediately before the verb ʔaw is merely emphatic, and if emphasis is not desired, is omitted. However, if something other than the verb is to be brought within the scope of negation, ʔaw is obligatory and must precede whatever is negated" [Poser 1998/2013: 31]
Prohibitive is expressed by the particle čʌnih + optative [Poser 1998/2013: 207] or by the particle iloh + imperative [Poser 1998/2013: 203].
Koyukon:=aː ~ =ǝ6
Jetté & Jones 2000: 5; Thompson 1977: 29.
According to [Thompson 1977: 29-31], negation of assertion is normally expressed by the combination of the verbal suffix -aː + one of the two prefixes: -lǝ- in non-perfective (i.e., imperfective and progressive) forms or -iː- in perfective. As noted in [Jetté & Jones 2000: 5], suffixal -aː can be reduced > -ǝ (with -ǝ being even more common).
Additionally, the suffix -ǝ may combine with the specific negative prefix cʼǝ- which is glossed as 'pejorative, negative, lacking' in [Jetté & Jones 2000: 660]. It is attested in such verbal stems as cʼǝ=...=t=niːk-ǝ ' do not know' from =t=nǝy̥ 'to know', cʼǝ=t=qʰun-ǝ 'to be without a husband' from =qʰunʔ 'husband', etc. The full variant of this pejorative morpheme cʼoː- 'bad, evil, difficulty' is used as the incorporated root or the first element of compounds [Jetté & Jones 2000: 672].
The suffix -ǝ alone is lexicalized in several verbs, where it emphasizes small dimensions, e.g., =kuc-ǝ 'to be small', =cʼaːq-ǝ 'to be narrow' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 5].
Prohibitive is expressed by the enclitic/suffix -yu ~ -yuː + optative [Jetté & Jones 2000: 719; Thompson 1977: 29].
Degexit'an:ð- ~ θ-3
Taff et al. 2007; Hargus 2000. Browsing through [Taff et al. 2007; Hargus 2000] suggests that negation of assertion is expressed by the suffix *-V, which is an etymological and morphophonological unit, phonetically realized as a zero, but causing the voicing of root final consonants (i.e., -ɬ > -l, -n̥ > -n, etc. in the old intervocalic position). Additionally, the prefix ð- ~ -θ- is also used (apparently it is restricted to non-perfective forms, just like the related -lǝ- in Koyukon), as well as the enclitic particle cʼǝnʔ. Cf. non-perfective: t=aː=ʂ=oː=tʼ=eː-ɬ 'we will do (it)' / t=aː=ʂ=ǝ=θ=tʼ=eː-lcʼǝnʔ 'we won't do (it)' [Hargus 2000: 10], ntaːʒ t=aː=tʰ=oː=nǝɬ 'What (ntaːʒ) will he say?' / tǝ=t=eː=neːl cʼǝnʔ 'he didn't say' [Hargus 2000: 14].
We treat -р-/-и- and cʼǝnʔ as synonyms.
Prohibitive exponents are not documented properly.
Sarsi:tú1
Cook 1984: 51. Glossed as 'not' by Cook. Browsing through the texts in [Goddard 1915] suggests that the verbal proclitic tú is the most common way to express negation of assertion.
Another negative exponent is the verbal prefix/proclitic cʼà, attested in some examples [Cook 1984: 182].
There is also a particle cʰá, glossed as 'no' in [Cook 1984: 51] (with the example: "It wasn't water").
Prohibitive is expressed by -ɬ in the suffix chain -ì-kù-ɬ, where -kù is the optative exponent [Cook 1984: 37].
NUMBER:62
WORD:not
Hupa:
Mattole:
Kato:
Taldash Galice:
Upper Inlet Tanaina:
Outer Inlet Tanaina:z-3
Boraas 2010: 86-89.
Inland Tanaina:z-3
Tenenbaum 1978: 112-114; Holton et al. 2004: 32.
Iliamna Tanaina:
Central Ahtena:ʔe=leʔ7
Kari 1990: 276.
Lower Ahtena: ʔe=leʔ [Kari 1990: 276].
Western Ahtena: liʔi [Kari 1990: 276]. Instead of liʔi, younger speakers of the Cantwell subdialects can use the particle kʼʸeyeʔ of unclear origin [Kari 1990: 126].
Li 1930: 134. Quoted by Li as lˈaihaʔ - probably a typo, since l- in the initial position should not occur in Mattole. Historically ɬai-haʔ, although the element -haʔ is unclear: cf. the enclitic particle -haʔ, probably with the emphatic function [Li 1930: 136].
Bear River dialect: ɬaihaʔ 'one' [Goddard 1929: 318].
Kato:ɬahaʔ1
Goddard 1912: 36; Curtis 1924: 205.
Taldash Galice:ɬaʔ1
Hoijer 1956: 223; Landar 1977: 295.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:cʼǝɬ-1
Kari 2007: 322.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:cʼǝɬ-1
Kari 2007: 322.
Inland Tanaina:cʼǝɬ-1
Kari 2007: 322; Wassillie 1979: 70.
Iliamna Tanaina:cʼǝɬ-1
Kari 2007: 322.
TFN_NOTES:
Forms of the numeral '1' generally coincide in all the dialects: cʼǝɬ-qʼi '1' applied to things, cʼiɬ-tʼan '1' applied to humans, cʼiɬ (Upper Inlet also cʼiɬ-ti)multiplicative 'once'.
Central Ahtena:cʼeɬ-qʼey1
Kari 1990: 416, 562, 634; Kari & Buck 1975: 99; Smelcer 2010: 102. In [Kari 1990: 634], quoted as cʼiɬ-qʼey - a typo.
Western Ahtena: cʼeɬ-qʼey [Kari 1990: 416, 562, 634]. In [Kari 1990: 634], quoted as cʼiɬ-qʼey - a typo.
Mentasta Ahtena:cʼeɬ-qʼey1
Kari 1990: 416, 562, 634; Kari & Buck 1975: 99; Smelcer 2010: 102.
AHT_NOTES:
The form cʼeɬ-qʼey / cʼaɬ-qʼey is applicable to things and animals. Cf. the forms of the numeral 'one' with other suffixes (no dialectal difference): cʼiɬ-ʁan applicable to persons; cʼiɬ-ten applicable to times and places; cʼiɬ-ʁu-χu applicable to ways [Kari 1990: 634].
Dogrib:ĩ́=ɬè1
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 53, 194. The initial morpheme ĩ́- is unclear.
According to the description in [Rice 1989: 376-377] and available examples, Hare possesses two cardinal numerals for '1', líkì and lá-tʼè, and two cardinal numerals for '2', rákʰiè and ʔõ̀=kʰè-tʼè.
In preposition to the counted noun, the forms líkì '1' and rákʰiè '2' are used.
In postposition, lá-tʼè '1' is normally used; cf. some examples with animate and non-animate nouns: "One kid ran around all night" [Rice 1978: 285], "I netted only one fish" [Rice 1978: 370], "I measured one piece of wood" [Rice 1978: 229], whereas líkì '1' has the specific meaning 'one of the'. The situation with cardinal '2' is slightly different: both rákʰiè '2' and ʔõ̀=kʰè-tʼè '2' can be used postpositionally, and the difference between two numerals is not described.
The semantic opposition between the constructions numeral + noun and noun + numeral is such that the noun designates a less concrete object in the former case [Rice 1989: 377].
Final -tʼè / -tʼiè is the verb 'there are number' [Rice 1989: 383, 385]. Further analysis of líkì '1' and lá-tʼè '1' is less evident, apparently the forms are cognate to each other representing various results of reanalysis of the proto-stem. It is proposed in [Rice 1989: 376] that the first element of lá-tʼè '1' is possr=lá-ʔ 'hand' q.v., but this solution is typologically not likely and also does not explain the high tone in lá-tʼè.
Tanacross:cʼéhɬêg1
Arnold et al. 2009: 188; Holton 2000: 345; Brean & Milanowski 1979: 21; McRoy 1973: 16; Shinen 1958: 18.
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):cʼehɬaɣŋ1
Milanowski 2009: 80.
Northway: cʼehɬeɣŋ 'one' [Milanowski 2007: 13].
Scottie Creek: cʼèhɬik 'one' [John 1997: 52].
Lower Tanana (Minto):cʼiɬkʼ-i1
Kari 1994: 301; Tuttle 2009: 148; Frank et al. 1988: 34. Applicable to things; cʼiɬkʼ-ǝn̥ is applicable to humans.
Central Carrier:ʔi=ɬo1
Poser 1998/2013: 35, 1284; Antoine et al. 1974: 396. The initial morpheme ʔi- is unclear. ʔiɬo is the generic form. Cf. other forms applicable to various objects: human & locative ʔiɬo-ɣʌn, multiplicative ʔiɬo-h, abstract ʔiɬo-xʷ.
Koyukon:kʼiːɬ-ǝqʼ-iː1
Jetté & Jones 2000: 309, 391, 812; Jones 1978: 113. Applicable to things; kʼiːɬ-ǝqʼ-aːn̥ ~ kʼiːɬ-ǝqʼ-ǝn̥ is applicable to humans. Cf. kʼiːɬ-tǝn̥ 'once', kʼiːɬ-χu 'in one direction' and other adverbs based on the synchronic root kʼiːɬ- 'one, single' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 309].
Degexit'an:kǝɬ-ǝq-ǝ ~ kǝɬ-ǝq1
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 52. Applicable to things and animals; kǝɬ-ǝq-ǝn̥ is applicable to humans (both men and women); keːɬ-ǝχ ~ keːɬ-ǝχ-tǝ is applicable to places and also means 'once' [Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 52; Chapman 1914: 229].
Sapir & Golla 2001: 805; Golla 1996: 71. Polysemy: 'person / people / Indians'. Literally 'acorn eater', from the word kʼʸi-win-yaʔn 'acorn' - literally '(what) someone eats' with =yaːn 'to eat' - and the same verb =yaːn 'to eat' q.v.
Mattole:kʷo=ni=s=tʼˈeʔ2
Li 1930: 130. Li quotes this nominalized verbal form as the collective term 'people (Indian)', although the Bear River gloss ko-ne-s-tʼe 'man' q.v. could point out that it can be used with the singulative meaning as well. Morphologically it looks like a deverbative from the verb =tʼeː or =tʼeʔ '?' (cf. =tʼeː 'to be of such sort' [Li 1930: 92] and the expression for 'man' q.v.: kaʔtʼˈeːn).
Cf. also the ethnonymical suffix -niː 'person' [Li 1930: 138].
Bear River dialect: not attested. Cf. ko-ne-s-tʼe, glossed in [Goddard 1929: 318] as 'man' (an error for 'person'?).
Kato:naneš ~ naneːš3
Goddard 1909: 119 No. 3, 130 No. 1. Polysemy: 'man [sg.] / person [sg.] / people [pl.]'. Further see notes on 'man'.
Taldash Galice:ta=teː4
Hoijer 1973: 54. Polysemy: 'person / Galice tribal name / relatives'. Originates from *=ta-i 'to sit', further see notes on 'man'.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:qʰuχtʼan-a5
Kari 2007: 72, 353; Kari 1977: 88.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:qʰuχtʼan-a ~ qʰutʼan-a5
Kari 2007: 72, 353; Kari 1977: 88.
Inland Tanaina:qʰutʼan5
Kari 2007: 72, 353; Kari 1977: 88.
Iliamna Tanaina:qʰuχtʼan-a5
Kari 2007: 72, 353; Kari 1977: 88.
TFN_NOTES:
Polysemy: 'man / person' in all the dialects. Further see notes on 'man'.
Western Ahtena: qʰohtʼeːn-e [Kari 1990: 87, 566; Kari & Buck 1975: 54].
Mentasta Ahtena:qʰohtʼeːn5
Kari 1990: 87, 566; Kari & Buck 1975: 54.
AHT_NOTES:
Polysemy: 'man / person' in all the dialects. For the morphological analysis, see notes on 'man'. This seems to be the default term for person(s)' in Ahtena.
There is also a second term for 'person': teneː, which is glossed with polysemy: 'person / wealthy man, leader, chief' in [Kari 1990: 295]; the plural form 'people' is teneː-y ~ tʰneː-y (Central, Lower, Western) and teneː-y ʔiːn (Mentasta). For the morphological analysis te-neː cf. [Kari 1990: 147, 295].
Dogrib:tóné ~ tṍ6
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 20, 196; Marinakis et al. 2007: 163. tṍ is the reduced variant of tóné. Polysemy: 'man / person / people / Dene people'.
North Slavey (Hare):tènè6
Rice 1978: 45, 160. Polysemy: 'man / person / people'.
Distinct from the more specific term kʰohtʼiːn ~ tʼiːn, glossed as 'a person of a particular kind or from a particular place' [Milanowski 2009: 18, 26, 81] and probably ineligible for the status of the generic term for 'person' in Tetlin. The variant tʼiːn (only used as the second element of compounds?) looks like a secondary abbreviation of kʰohtʼiːn. The latter corresponds to Ahtena qʰohtʼeːne 'man / person', Tanaina qʰuχtʼan-a 'man / person' q.v. Tanana kʰohtʼiːn could be an Ahtena loanword.
Kari 1994: 12, 452. Glossed as 'person (of either sex), people, human, man, middle age person, Athabaskan person'. Pl.: kʰʌxtʼan-a-yi 'peoples'. To be analyzed in the same manner as Tanainaqʰuχtʼan, Ahtena qʰohtʼeːne 'man / person' (q.v.): literally kʰʌ-x-tʼ-an-a 'one who has territory' with the verb =tʼ=an̥ (< =t-ʔan) 'to have, possess' and -na 'pl. human relative suffix' [Kari 1994: 196] (the original plural form 'persons' has superseded the singular one); initial kʰʌ- is expected to be an areal object prefix 'area, place', although this morpheme is not quoted in [Kari 1994; Urschel 2006] as a morphological unit, which is why the whole term could actually be a loanword from a neighboring lect.
The second candidate is tǝna with polysemy: 'person / man' (q.v). We have to treat kʰʌxtʼan-a and tǝna as synonyms for 'person'.
Jetté & Jones 2000: 427, 976; Jones 1978: 118. Polysemy: 'man / person'.
Distinct from the collective term nǝn-qʰoː χo-tǝnaː-ʔ ~ nǝn-qʰoː tǝnaː-ʔ 'human beings, people, humanity' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 428], literally 'person(s) on surface of the earth' with nǝnʔ 'earth' (q.v.), qʰoː 'surface' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 334] and the areal prefix χo- [Jetté & Jones 2000: 266].
Degexit'an:tǝnaː6
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 29; Chapman 1914: 225. Polysemy: 'man / person'.
Distinct from the collective term ŋǝnʔ-qʰoːɢ χʊ-tǝnaː-ʔ 'human beings' [Kari 1978: 29], literally 'person(s) on surface of the earth' with ŋǝnʔ 'ground, world' q.v. and qʰoːɢ 'covering' [Taff et al. 2007].
Sarsi:tìná6
Hoijer & Joël 1963: 72; Hoijer 1956: 222. Polysemy: 'man / person / eyeball, pupil of the eye'.
NUMBER:64
WORD:person
Hupa:
Mattole:
Kato:
Taldash Galice:
Upper Inlet Tanaina:
Outer Inlet Tanaina:
Inland Tanaina:
Iliamna Tanaina:
Central Ahtena:
Mentasta Ahtena:
Dogrib:
North Slavey (Hare):
Tanacross:
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):
Lower Tanana (Minto):tǝna ~ tǝnǝh6
Kari 1994: 196.
Central Carrier:
Koyukon:
Degexit'an:
Sarsi:
NUMBER:65
WORD:rain
Hupa:naː=n=ya-y1
Golla 1996: 77. Not found in [Sapir & Golla 2001]. Polysemy: 'rain (subst.) / it's raining'. A descriptive formation with the directional prefix naː- 'down from vertically above' [Golla 1970: 125] and the verbal root =yaː 'to move somewhere' (for which see notes on 'come' & 'go').
The old root for 'rain' is retained in kʰʸaŋ-kʰʸoh 'hailstorm' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 757] with the augmentative suffix -kʰʸoh (for which see notes on 'big').
Mattole:=tiɣ2
Li 1930: 86. Verbal stem with the meaning 'to rain': =teh < *=tex [imperf.] / =tiɣ < *=tex-i [perf.]. Li does not quote any nominal forms for 'rain'; apparently, the default expressions for 'rain' are based on the aforementioned verb.
Bear River dialect: the old nominal root čʰa=kʰˈon ~ ča=kʰon-e 'rain' [Goddard 1929: 319] is retained (the first element is not entirely clear). A second word for 'rain', quoted in [Goddard 1929: 319], is an unclear čʰa=kʰal.
Kato:tʰǝ=t=pǝl ~ tʰǝ=t=pǝɬ3
Goddard 1909: 74 No. 4, 93 No. 5; Curtis 1924: 205. Literally 'it falls, it sprinkles' from the verb =pǝɬ < *=pil [light imperf.] / =pǝl < *=pil-i [heavy imperf.] / =piːlʔ < *=pil-ʔ-i [heavy perf.] 'to fall (pl. subj.), fall in drops' [Goddard 1912: 68].
Taldash Galice:naː=yaː1
Hoijer 1973: 55; Hoijer 1956: 223; Landar 1977: 295. In [Hoijer 1956], quoted as na=i=yaː. Literally 'it moves down' (=yaː 'to move, go' [Hoijer 1973: 69]), a good match to the Hupa form naː=n=ya-y 'rain'.
In [Hoijer 1973: 69], specific paradigmatic forms of =yaː 'to move, go' q.v. are treated as a separate verb for 'to rain': =ya-š [imperf.] / =ya-ʔ [perf.].
Upper Inlet Tanaina:kʰun4
Kari 2007: 152, 356; Kari 1977: 138.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:kʰun4
Kari 2007: 152, 356; Kari 1977: 138.
Inland Tanaina:kʰun4
Kari 2007: 152, 356; Kari 1977: 138.
Iliamna Tanaina:kʰun4
Kari 2007: 152, 356; Kari 1977: 138.
TFN_NOTES:
Also attested as the verb =ɬ=kʰun 'to rain' (all dialects) [Kari 2007: 152; Wassillie 1979: 79].
Central Ahtena:kʰʸaːn4
Kari 1990: 110, 574; Kari & Buck 1975: 89; Smelcer 2010: 127.
Western Ahtena: kʰʸaːn [Kari 1990: 110, 574; Kari & Buck 1975: 89; Smelcer 2010: 127].
Mentasta Ahtena:kʰʸãː4
Kari 1990: 110, 574; Kari & Buck 1975: 89; Smelcer 2010: 127.
AHT_NOTES:
In [Smelcer 2010: 127], erroneously quoted as kʰʸan. Also attested as the verb =ɬ=kʰʸaːn 'to rain' (all dialects, Mentasta =ɬ=kʰʸãː) [Kari 1990: 110].
Rice 1978: 93, 165; Hoijer 1956: 222. Hoijer quotes the 19th c. archaic variant čõ. The verbal meaning 'to rain' is expressed analytically: šõ̀ tè=lè, lit. 'rains falls' [Rice 1978: 444, 529].
Tanacross:čʰãː4
Arnold et al. 2009: 209; Holton 2000: 346; Brean & Milanowski 1979: 12. In [Holton 2000], transcribed as čʰàːn. Also functions as the verb =h=čʰãː 'to rain' [Arnold et al. 2009: 209; Holton 2000: 351; McRoy 1973: 6; Shinen 1958: 13].
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):čʰãː ~ čʰãː tʰu-ʔ4
Milanowski 2009: 12, 79. The full collocation čʰãː tʰu-ʔ literally means 'water of čʰãː'. Also functions as the verb =h=čʰãː 'to rain' [Milanowski 2009: 39].
Golla 1996: 78. Not found in [Sapir & Golla 2001]. As noted by Golla, a contraction from cʰeː-lin ne-h-waːn, literally cʰeː=lin 'blood' q.v. + 'it resembles' [Golla 1996: 78; Golla 1970: 63].
Mattole:=čʰiːč2
Li 1930: 116. Verbal root 'to be red'. Cf. the full form ɬi=čʰˈiːč '(it is) red' (for the adjectival prefix ɬi- see [Li 1930: 64]).
Bear River dialect: not attested.
Kato:ɬ=čʰiːk2
Goddard 1912: 28; Curtis 1924: 203. An adjective-like deverbal form. Polysemy: 'red / yellow' (the meaning 'yellow' is only quoted in [Curtis 1924]).
Distinct from the verb =čʰiːʔ, which is glossed in [Goddard 1912: 74] with polysemy: 'to be red / to dawn', although browsing through [Goddard 1909] suggests that its only meaning seems to be 'to dawn'.
Taldash Galice:=sit3
Hoijer 1973: 70; Landar 1977: 295. Verbal root: 'to be red'. The adjectival form is ɬ=sit.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:=l=tǝl4
Kari 2007: 319, 320, 356; Kari 1977: 253.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:=l=tǝl4
Kari 2007: 319, 320, 356; Kari 1977: 253.
Inland Tanaina:=tǝl4
Kari 2007: 319, 320, 356; Kari 1977: 253; Wassillie 1979: 80.
Iliamna Tanaina:=l=tǝl4
Kari 2007: 319, 320, 356; Kari 1977: 253.
TFN_NOTES:
Verbal stem: 'to be red', based on the substantive tǝl 'blood' q.v.
Central Ahtena:=l=tel4
Kari 1990: 148, 576; Kari & Buck 1975: 103; Smelcer 2010: 60.
Rice 1978: 14, 416, 529; Rice 1989: 10. Verbal form 'it is red', eventually based on the substantive poss=tél-éʔ 'blood' q.v.; initial tè- is the adjectival prefix [Rice 1989: 617], for the desemanticized verbal suffix -e see[Rice 1989: 816].
Distinct from more specific sìh 'red ashes from driftwood / vermillion (adj.)' [Rice 1978: 90] (in [Hoijer 1956: 222], it is quoted as the basic term for 'red').
Tanacross:t=è=l=tʼèɬ6
Arnold et al. 2009: 212; Holton 2000: 178, 351; Brean & Milanowski 1979: 22; McRoy 1973: 16; Shinen 1958: 18. The verb =l=tʼèɬ 'to be red' with the adjectival/gender exponent t= [Holton 2000: 237 ff.].
Distinct from phonetically similar tèɬ 'blood' q.v.
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):t=e=l=tʼal6
Milanowski 2009: 15, 72. Formed from the verb =l=tʼaɬ 'to be red'.
Northway: t=e=l=tʼal '(it is) red' [Milanowski 2007: 15] (quoted with a typo).
Kari 1994: 166, 463; Tuttle 2009: 162. Verbal stem: 'to be red', also functions as the noun-like adjective kʼǝʐ-aʔ 'red'. Derived from the substantive kʼǝʂ 'thin leaf alder, red alder' [Kari 1994: 166].
The second candidate is the rarely used verb =l=tǝl 'to be red' [Kari 1994: 68] from tǝɬ 'blood' q.v.
Central Carrier:=l=kʼʌn7
Poser 1998/2013: 865, 1221, 1256; Poser 2011a: 169; Antoine et al. 1974: 88, 325. Verbal stem: 'to be red'.
Koyukon:=t=qʼǝs5
Jetté & Jones 2000: 358, 989; Jones 1978: 129. Glossed as 'to be red, reddish, orange, rust-colored'. Also functions as the noun-like adjective qʼǝz-ǝʔ 'red' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 359]. Derived from the substantive qʼǝs 'alder' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 357].
In the Upper dialect, it competes with the more marginal verb =l=tǝɬ 'be red, be blood-red, be bloody' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 131] from tǝɬ 'blood' q.v.
Degexit'an:=qʼǝʂ ~ =qʼǝʐ5
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 55; Kari 1976: 43; Chapman 1914: 230. Verbal stem: 'to be red'.
Sarsi:=V=kʼáːz5
Li 1930b: 22; Hoijer 1956: 223; Cook 1984: 166. Verbal stem: 'to be red'.
Li 1930: 128, 148 sub No. 84. Glossed as 'road, trail'. The final element -ŋ is unclear. There is another attested variant: tiniŋ 'road' [Li 1930: 148 sub No. 84], phonetically obscure.
Bear River dialect: tʰena ~ tʰanːa 'road' [Goddard 1929: 319].
Kato:tʰǝnːiː1
Goddard 1912: 32, 120.
Taldash Galice:tʰateː1
Hoijer 1973: 54; Hoijer 1956: 223. Glossed as 'road, trail'.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:tʰǝn1
Kari 2007: 234, 356; Kari 1977: 230. Possessed: possr=tʰǝn ~ possr=tʰǝn-a.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:tʰǝn1
Kari 2007: 234, 356; Kari 1977: 230. Possessed: possr=tʰǝn ~ possr=tʰǝn-ʔa.
Inland Tanaina:tʰǝn1
Kari 2007: 234, 356; Kari 1977: 230. Possessed: possr=tʰǝn ~ possr=tʰǝn-a.
Iliamna Tanaina:tʰǝn1
Kari 2007: 234, 356; Kari 1977: 230. Possessed: possr=tʰǝn ~ possr=tʰǝn-ʔa.
TFN_NOTES:
In [Kari 2007: 234], tʰǝn is glossed as 'trail, road, path, animal trail' for all the dialects.
The second term, quoted in [Kari 2007: 234] for the meaning 'trail, road, path', is the descriptive formation tʰi=n=i=tʰun with the classificatory verb =tʰun 'to handle a long rigid object or an empty container' [Tenenbaum 1978: 136; Boraas 2010: 62, 118], where tʰi= can be the directional adverbial prefix 'out of a house or dwelling' [Tenenbaum 1978: 185; Boraas 2010: 129].
Central Ahtena:tʰene1
Kari 1990: 333, 579; Kari & Buck 1975: 81; Smelcer 2010: 98.
Western Ahtena: tʰene [Kari 1990: 333, 579; Kari & Buck 1975: 81; Smelcer 2010: 98].
Mentasta Ahtena:tʰen1
Kari 1990: 333, 579; Kari & Buck 1975: 81; Smelcer 2010: 98. Regular reduction of final -e.
AHT_NOTES:
Glossed as 'trail, road'. Cf. the cognate verb =l=tʰen 'to have a trail; to make a trip on a trail' [Kari 1990: 333].
Dogrib:tʰĩ́-lí1
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 97, 204. The second morpheme -lí is unclear. Glossed with polysemy: 'road / path / trail'. This is the default expression for 'road' as follows from numerous instances: "When it's slippery, they put gravel on the road" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 6], "He was by chance walking back on the road" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 12], "He walked by on the other side of the road" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 37], "The road is slippery because it rained a lot" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 42 ], "He is travelling on the road" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 73], "A road runs to Whati", "Long ago the road didn't extend to Yellowknife" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 81], "Evidently they made a road across the lake" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 85], "The road is crooked" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 118], "And so the bus drove off the road" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 130], "A truck went over the road" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 130].
The second candidate is kʼèlìː or é=kʼèlìː-kʼè (with possessive é= 'its' and the postposition -kʼè 'place of'), glossed as 'path, road' in [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 62]. It is a much more rare term, no examples have been found.
North Slavey (Hare):kiè2
Rice 1978: 56, 166. The possessed form is possr=kiér-éʔ [Rice 1989: 213] (apparently not possr=kír-éʔ). Glossed simply as 'road', cf. the attested examples: "The road is narrow" [Rice 1978: 260], "We followed an old road" [Rice 1978: 561], "we found him walking back along the road" [Rice 1989: 1227].
Distinct from more specific tʰõ̀-lù 'large road' [Rice 1978: 97] with the example "A tree fell across the road" [Rice 1978: 321]. Final -lù is an unclear element; formally it can be the attributive 'round' (see [Rice 1989: 244] for South Slavey -lú 'round'), a suffixless cognate to the verb =lùl-è 'to be round 3D' q.v.
Distinct from tʰènè 'path' [Rice 1978: 96, 159]. The words tʰõ̀-lù 'large road' and tʰènè 'path' are cognate.
Tanacross:tʰẽy1
Arnold et al. 2009: 217, 274; Holton 2000: 348; Shinen 1958: 13. Polysemy: 'trail / road / path'.
Distinct from ndiːɣŋ 'way, route' [Milanowski 2009: 22].
Northway: tʰãy 'road' [Milanowski 2007: 15].
Lower Tanana (Minto):tʰǝna1
Kari 1994: 234, 465; Tuttle 2009: 165. Glossed as 'trail, road, path'.
Central Carrier:tʰi1
Poser 1998/2013: 463, 874; Poser 2011a: 174; Antoine et al. 1974: 217, 326. Glossed as 'trail, road, path'.
Koyukon:tʰǝnǝ1
Jetté & Jones 2000: 513, 993; Jones 1978: 133. Glossed as 'trail, path, road'.
Degexit'an:tʰǝŋ1
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 87. Polysemy: 'road / trail'.
Sarsi:tʰìnɒ̀ ~ tʰìnà1
Hoijer & Joël 1963: 70; Cook 1984: 215. Briefly glossed as 'path' in the sources. Note that in [Hoijer 1956: 223], an unclear Sarsi form ástì- is quoted in the Swadesh meaning 'path'.
NUMBER:68
WORD:root
Hupa:qat1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 753; Golla 1996: 80; Golla 1964: 116. In [Golla 1996], quoted as qut. Glossed as 'tree roots (esp. willow)' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 753; Golla 1964: 116] and more narrowly 'the long tubular root of the willow, used in basketry' [Golla 1996: 80]. Cf. the following examples: "He picked up a willow (qʼayliʍ) root (qut)" [Goddard 1904: 197], "There he saw alder (qʼiʍ) roots (qut) projecting into the water" [Goddard 1904: 341, 344].
Distinct from the more specific term xay 'the roots of a conifer (esp. pine or spruce roots)' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 799; Golla 1996: 80; Golla 1964: 115]. Examples are: "On the fire I throw small roots, so that they may get cooked" [Golla 1970: 271], "I make a cut along the lengths of the roots I brought" [Golla 1970: 306].
A third candidate is possr=xaːčʼ-eʔ, glossed as 'clumped roots, (tree's) stump' in [Sapir & Golla 2001: 797; Golla 1996: 92; Golla 1964: 115]. An example: "The scabby one took a Tan oak and split it to its roots with his hands" [Goddard 1904: 210, 213]. The same word is used in the expression for 'angelica, sweet anise, incense root': mi-xaːčʼ-eʔ xo-leːn, literally 'its-roots are-plenty' [Golla 1996: 4; Goddard 1904: 227]. It seems that possr=xaːčʼ-eʔ displays the specific collective meaning 'roots'; therefore, we exclude =xaːčʼ- from the list.
Mattole:possr=kʰˈat-eʔ1
Li 1930: 130. Quoted as ʔi=kʰˈat-eʔ with the indefinite possessive pronoun ʔi-, for which see notes on 'meat'. Cf. the non-possessed variant kʰaʔ in kʰaʔ payˈeh 'under the roots' [Li 1930: 135, 149 sub No. 93]; this form is not clear, because the normal development for the final position is -t > -h, not -t > -ʔ [Li 1930: 20].
Bear River dialect: not attested reliably.
Kato:
Not attested.
Taldash Galice:
Not attested.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:possr=qacʼ-a2
Kari 2007: 62, 356.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:possr=qacʼ-a2
Kari 2007: 62, 356.
Inland Tanaina:possr=qacʼ-a2
Kari 2007: 62, 356.
Iliamna Tanaina:possr=qacʼ-a2
Kari 2007: 62, 356.
TFN_NOTES:
possr=qacʼ-a is glossed as 'primary tree roots, large roots' in [Kari 2007: 62] and inaccurately as 'secondary roots' in [Kari 1977: 76].
Cf. the morphophonological variant =qas without the izafet suffix: tkʰǝn qas 'roots of birch, alder, or willow', literally 'wood roots' (all dialects) [Kari 2007: 62; Kari 1977: 76].
Central Ahtena:possr=kʰʸen-eʔ3
Kari 1990: 113, 579; Kari & Buck 1975: 31; Smelcer 2010: 107.
Western Ahtena: possr=kʰʸen-eʔ [Kari 1990: 113, 579; Kari & Buck 1975: 31; Smelcer 2010: 107].
Mentasta Ahtena:possr=kʰʸen-ʔ3
Kari 1990: 113, 579; Kari & Buck 1975: 31; Smelcer 2010: 107.
AHT_NOTES:
The basic meaning of kʰʸen is 'base', hence the polysemy: 'base, lower part / flat level surface, open ground, tundra, meadow / stump / root / chopping block'. This word is quoted as the generic term for 'root' in [Kari & Buck 1975; Smelcer 2010].
Distinct from possr=ʁah-te(-)ʔ 'main root of tree' (all dialects; an unclear compound) [Kari 1990: 210] and χay (all dialects; Mentasta χey) 'spruce root' [Kari 1990: 212].
Dogrib:xóh4
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 121, 205. Glossed simply as 'root' with the example "When it's summer lots of roots grow". The synonym is the compound xó-čʰĩ̀ː 'root' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 121], literally 'čʰĩ́ of root' with -čʰĩ́ 'tree, bush, log, twig, stick', see notes on 'tree'.
North Slavey (Hare):xài4
Rice 1978: 108, 167.
Tanacross:xèy̥4
Arnold et al. 2009: 218; Holton 2000: 347; Brean & Milanowski 1979: 9; McRoy 1973: 5; Shinen 1958: 13. Usually glossed as 'spruce roots', but actually the word looks like a generic term, cf. the collocation for 'willow roots': kʼẽ́y x̬êyː-ʔ, literally 'xèy̥ of willow' [Arnold et al. 2009: 218].
Distinct from cʰàːθ 'edible root (carrot, Indian potato, potato)' [Arnold et al. 2009: 218; Brean & Milanowski 1979: 9].
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):xay̥4
Milanowski 2009: 28, 82.
Distinct from cʰɯː 'edible root' [Milanowski 2009: 25, 82].
Kari 1994: 109, 465; Tuttle 2009: 166. Polysemy: 'root / willow root'. A form from the verb =kaθ [imperf.] / =katθ [perf.] 'to twist, wring'; initial xʊ= is the area gender prefix [Kari 1994: 135]. Cf. the noun katθ 'main spruce root' [Kari 1994: 109].
Distinct from xʊy̥ 'spruce root, tree roots' [Kari 1994: 140], which is apparently more rare.
Distinct from čʼǝ=ɣʌc-aʔ 'tree trunk and roots' [Kari 1994: 134] (čʼǝ= is the indefinite possessive pronoun).
Central Carrier:possr=ɣih4
Poser 1998/2013: 159, 876; Poser 2011a: 174; Antoine et al. 1974: 24, 326.
Koyukon:possr=qaːƛ-ǝʔ2
Jetté & Jones 2000: 204, 994; Jones 1978: 133. Explained by Jetté as "General term applying to all roots except the fine radicles of the spruce (and other trees) which are specifically termed χoy̥". Cf. the possibly cognate verb =t=qǝƛ 'to be twisted, awry, out of alignment' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 207].
Distinct from χoy̥, glossed as 'spruce root, long thin tree roots' and specified as "The long slender roots of the spruce, used to sew together the birchbark pieces in making canoes ... [and] baskets" [Jetté & Jones 2000: 277].
Degexit'an:possr=qaːdᶞ2
Kari 1978: 17; Chapman 1914: 229. Glossed as 'tree roots' by Kari and simply as 'root' by Chapman. Cf. the attested examples: "She tore up spruces by the roots. In her rage, she broke down the trees also" [Chapman 1914: 129], "Then he happened to look toward the root [of the big drift-log lying in the edge of the water], and there were two masks hanging on it [...] He went to them; and when he reached them, he put out his hand to take them, when all at once the root vanished" [Chapman 1914: 172], "The earth shook, and soon afterward the door opened. You see they had put a big root against the door" [Chapman 1914: 176], "There he was all day, when the root that covered the smoke-hole slid aside, and a stunningly pretty woman in a fine marten-skin parka put her face down inside the hole. [...] Then she threw down the big root upon the hole, and turned away and vanished" [Chapman 1914: 178-179], "One morning his father placed a big root at the door for him, to exercise with" [Chapman 1914: 189].
It should be noted that the word possr=qaːdð is not found in [Taff et al. 2007].
The second candidate is χʊy̥, glossed in [Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 17] simply as 'root(s)', but not found at all in [Chapman 1914]. The following examples are offered in [Taff et al. 2007]: "Willow root coiled basket or plate", "We're digging for roots", "My grandmother is going paddling for roots", "Edna is weaving a root basket".
Presumably the Degexit'an opposition between possr=qaːdð and χʊy̥ is the same as in Koyukon q.v.: possr=qaːdð is a generic term, whereas χʊy̥ denotes long slender roots used in handicraft.
Not attested. Cf. the verb =paːs 'to coil (a rope)' [Li 1930: 82], which corresponds to Hupa =maːcʼ.
Bear River dialect: čʰo=wol 'round' [Goddard 1929: 319], i.e., 'to be round' (not specified semantically).
Kato:=poːš2
Goddard 1912: 98, 158. Both of the attested examples in [Goddard 1909: 80 No. 1, 133 No. 3] point to the specific meaning 'to be round 3D'.
Taldash Galice:=paš2
Hoijer 1973: 63. Verbal root with polysemy: 'to be round 3D / to roll (like a ball)'. No expression for 'round 2D' is documented.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:
Not attested properly. The existence of the verbs =pucʼ 'to be round' and =l=ʁay 'to be round' is expected on the basis of the following documented collocations: kʼtʼun pucʼ-a 'quaking aspen, little cottonwood', lit. 'leaf-round' [Kari 2007: 50], na-ʁǝ-l-ʁay-i 'soup bowl', lit. 'one that is round' [Kari 2007: 268].
It must be noted that the aforementioned collocations point to the original meaning 'to be round 2D' for both =pucʼ and =ʁay.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:
Not attested properly. The existence of the verb =l=pǝs 'to be round 3D' is expected on the basis of the following documented collocation: cʰi-l-pǝs-i 'bufflehead (Bucephala albeola)', lit. 'round head' [Kari 2007: 29].
Inland Tanaina:=l=vicʼ2
Wassillie 1979: 83. Verbal root: 'to be round 3D'. Wassillie quotes the inflected form t=ʁǝ=l=vicʼ with the example "round ball".
Iliamna Tanaina:
Not attested.
TFN_NOTES:
Note the different shapes of the root: Upper Inlet =pucʼ, Outer Inlet =pǝs, Inland =vicʼ.
For =l=ʁaž cf. the cognate noun =ʁaž- 'egg' q.v.
Central Ahtena:=l=ciːt4
Kari 1990: 174, 580.
Lower Ahtena: =l=ciːt [Kari 1990: 174, 580].
Western Ahtena: =l=ciːt [Kari 1990: 174, 580].
Mentasta Ahtena:=l=ciːt4
Kari 1990: 174, 580.
AHT_NOTES:
Verbal stem: 'to be round 3D'. Glossed by Kari as 'to be spherical, round, circular, concave, chubby'.
Dogrib:=ɣĩ̀-ã́ ~ =yĩ̀-ã́5
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 52, 205; Marinakis et al. 2007: 154, 156. Verbal root: 'to be round'. Final -á is the common diminutive suffix [Marinakis et al. 2007: 152 ff.]. -ɣĩ̀-ã́ ~ -yĩ̀-ã́ is also commonly used as a noun-like adjective (or a suffix) 'round' [Marinakis et al. 2007: 156]. It is unclear whether =ɣĩ̀-ã́ ~ =yĩ̀-ã́ means 'round 3D/2D' or only 'round 3D'. In [Marinakis et al. 2007: 154, 156], it is explicitly specified as 'round like a ball', i.e., 'round 3D', but the only found example "Her face is round" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 37] can suggest the additional meaning 'round 2D'. Because of nasalization, =ɣĩ̀-ã́ ~ =yĩ̀-ã́ 'round' seems unrelated to the noun possr=ɣè ~ possr=yè 'egg' q.v.
No specific expressions for 'round 2D' have been found in the available sources.
Cf. also the verbal root =mõ̀ː with unclear meaning, attested in the substantive écʼá=è=h=mõ̀ː ~ écʼá=è=mõ̀-ã́ 'circle, round' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 37; Siemens et al. 2007: 25]; initial écʼá- is the verbal spatial prefix 'in a circle' [Marinakis et al. 2007: 103].
North Slavey (Hare):=lùl-è6
Rice 1978: 261, 449, 531. For the desemanticized verbal suffix -e see[Rice 1989: 816].
There is a variety of verbs documented with the meaning 'to be round' in Hare:
1) =lùl-è with polysemy: 'to roll (trans., intrans.) / to be round 3D' [Rice 1978: 261, 449, 531] (glossed as 'round, spherical'). The attested examples are: "The teapot is round", "The wood is round" [Rice 1978: 261].
2) =ɣén-é with polysemy: 'to roll (trans., intrans.) / to be round 2D' [Rice 1978: 260, 435, 531] (glossed as 'round and flat'). The attested example is: "Give me the round plate" [Rice 1978: 260].
3) =kùl-è 'to be narrow and round' [Rice 1978: 259, 431, 531] with the example "The stick is long, round, and narrow" [Rice 1978: 259]. Apparently the meaning 'to be round in section' is meant.
4) =mén-é 'to be round 2D' [Rice 1978: 261, 453] (glossed as 'to be circular'), the example is: "The frame is round" [Rice 1978: 261]. Substantivized hĩ̀=mén-éʔ means 'circle' [Rice 1978: 62].
5) =kʼòl-è 'to be round' [Rice 1978: 261, 443, 531] with only one obscure example "The thread is big" [Rice 1978: 261], perhaps the meaning 'to be round in section' is meant;
6) =pàr-è 'to be rounded, curved' [Rice 1978: 257, 531], e.g., "The knife is rounded" [Rice 1978: 257].
Provisionally we fill the slot with =lùl-è 'round 3D' and =ɣén-é 'round 2D', although further corpus analysis is required.
Tanacross:=t=x̬èːs3
Arnold et al. 2009: 219; Holton 2000: 351. Verbal root: 'to be round 3D'. Cf. the cognate noun possr=x̬ěːz-ʔ 'egg' q.v.
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):=t=xia3
Milanowski, p.c. Verbal root: 'to be round'. Milanowski's only example points to the meaning 'round 2D': cʼetxia tθʼaːɣn 'round dish'. Cf. the cognate noun possr=xia-ʔ 'egg' q.v.
Lower Tanana (Minto):=l=ɣaʂ3
Kari 1994: 123, 466. Verbal stem: 'to be round 3D'. Cf. the cognate noun possr=ɣaʐ-aʔ 'egg' q.v.
A second, probably more specific candidate is =l=cit, glossed as 'to be spherical, round, circular, concave, chubby' [Kari 1994: 104].
Central Carrier:=c̪ʼʌn7
Poser 1998/2013: 318, 876; Poser 2011a: 175; Antoine et al. 1974: 159, 326. Polysemy: 'to be round 3D / to be round 2D / to curl up". Cf. the examples: "The plate is round and flat", "The world is supposed to be round", "The dog is curled up by the fireplace" [Poser 1998/2013: 318].
May be the same verb as =c̪ʼʌn 'to be stiff, hard', thus in [Poser 1998/2013: 750, 1223, 1263].
Koyukon:=t=ʁǝs3
Jetté & Jones 2000: 235, 994. Polysemy: 'to be round 3D / to be fat, plump, lumpy'. Also functions as the noun-like adjective ʁǝs 'round 3D' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 236]. Cf. the cognate noun possr=ʁaːz-ǝʔ 'egg' q.v.
No expressions for 'round 2D' are documented reliably. Cf. the noun-like adjective qaːc ~ qaːc-ǝʔ, glossed as 'circular, spherical, solidly', with the example toːlǝl qaːc 'silver dollar', literally 'round, solid dollar' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 204]. The cognate verb =l=qaːc means 'to be wide-eyed, go having one's eyes open wide' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 204].
Degexit'an:kǝ=mǝθ2
Taff et al. 2007. Expressions for 'round' are poorly documented in available sources. The best candidate is kǝ=mǝθ, glossed as 'round on the outside' in [Taff et al. 2007] with the only example "I have a round bowl". Cf. the cognate verb =kǝ=mǝθ 'to roll' [Kari 1976: 18; Taff et al. 2007]. It is likely that kǝ=mǝθ is the Degexit'an expression for 'round 3D'.
The second candidate is the verb =ʁaːc 'to be spherical' [Kari 1976: 24], not found in other sources.
Cf. the verb =ŋǝð, translated as 'to be round' in the expression for 'bowl', literally 'round container' [Taff et al. 2007] and as 'to be round and deep inside' in the example "It is round and deep inside" [Taff et al. 2007]. Apparently, this is the same root as =ŋaːθ 'to be long', ŋǝθ 'long' q.v.
Li 1930b: 17; Cook 1984: 158. Not specified semantically, but apparently means 'to be round 3D'. Cf. the cognate verb =ɣáːl 'to roll (intr.)' [Li 1930b: 17; Cook 1984: 158].
NUMBER:69
WORD:round
Hupa:=maːcʼ2
Sapir & Golla 2001: 769; Golla 1996: 80. Verbal root with polysemy: 'to be round 2D / to coil (trans.), put in a circle' [Golla 1996: 19, 80].
Mattole:
Kato:
Taldash Galice:
Upper Inlet Tanaina:
Outer Inlet Tanaina:
Inland Tanaina:=l=ʁaž3
Wassillie 1979: 83; Tenenbaum 1978: 154. Tenenbaum's gloss 'it's spherical' implies the meaning 'to be round 3D', whereas Wassillie's example "the sun is round" can point to either 'to be round 3D' or 'to be round 2D'.
Iliamna Tanaina:
Central Ahtena:=l=paːcʼ2
Kari 1990: 99, 580.
Lower Ahtena: =l=paːcʼ [Kari 1990: 99, 580].
Western Ahtena: =l=paːcʼ [Kari 1990: 99, 580].
Mentasta Ahtena:=l=paːcʼ2
Kari 1990: 99, 580.
AHT_NOTES:
Verbal stem: 'to be round 2D'. Polysemy: 'to roll, revolve, spin / to be round 2D, circular'. Paradigm =l=paːs [imperf.] / =l=paːcʼ [perf.]. In the meaning 'to be round', used with the l- or t-classifier.
Dogrib:
North Slavey (Hare):=ɣén-é5
Rice 1978: 260, 435, 531.
Tanacross:=l=màːtθ2
Arnold et al. 2009: 219. Verbal root: 'to be round 2D'.
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):
Lower Tanana (Minto):=bʌtθ ~ =l=bʌtθ2
Kari 1994: 40, 466. Verbal stem: 'to be round 2D'. The basic meaning of =l=bʌtθ is 'to roll, revolve, spin' [Kari 1994: 40].
Central Carrier:
Koyukon:
Degexit'an:
Sarsi:=mɒ̀ːz ~ =mɒ̀cʼ2
Li 1930b: 18. Not specified semantically, but apparently means 'to be round 2D'. Cf. the cognate verb =mɒ̀s [imperf.] / =mɒ́ːz ~ =mɒ́cʼ [perf.] 'to roll (intr., ring-like object)' [Li 1930b: 17].
NUMBER:70
WORD:sand
Hupa:ɬi=čʼiʍ1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 744, 766; Golla 1996: 29, 81; Golla 1964: 114. Polysemy: 'sand / sandy dirt / dust'. The second element of this form is possr=čʼiʍ-eʔ 'dust, particles of something' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 744; Golla 1996: 88], [Golla 1964: 114]. Initial ɬi= is not entirely clear (in [Sapir & Golla 2001: 766], this is treated as "thematic prefix in nouns"); it could be a reduced form of ɬeh- 'a sloppy object', which is singled out from the compounds ɬeh-č-maː 'blue clay', ɬeh-tʼeːtʼeʔ 'mud', ɬeh=qʼončʼ 'salt' q.v. [Sapir & Golla 2001: 765, Golla 1964: 117].
Mattole:ɬeːš2
Li 1930: 132.
Bear River dialect: ɬeš 'sand' [Goddard 1929: 320].
Kato:sai3
Goddard 1912: 20.
Distinct from ɬ=čʰǝš 'dust' [Goddard 1912: 16, 30], which corresponds to the Hupa term for 'sand' (with de-ejectivization čʰ < *čʼ).
Taldash Galice:sai3
Hoijer 1973: 58. However, in [Hoijer 1956: 223], the word for 'sand' is quoted as s=tai - an unclear form.
Distinct from ɬ=cʼas 'dirt / dust / cold ashes' [Hoijer 1973: 59], which corresponds to the Hupa and Kato terms for 'sand'.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:suy3
Kari 2007: 146, 357; Kari 1977: 122.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:suɣ3
Kari 2007: 146, 357; Kari 1977: 122.
Inland Tanaina:suy3
Kari 2007: 146, 357; Kari 1977: 122; Wassillie 1979: 84.
Iliamna Tanaina:suɣi3
Kari 2007: 146, 357. In [Kari 1977: 122], quoted as suy.
Central Ahtena:saːs3
Kari 1990: 449, 581; Kari & Buck 1975: 81; Smelcer 2010: 98.
Poser 1998/2013: 440, 882; Poser 2011a: 177; Antoine et al. 1974: 208, 327.
Koyukon:ɬaːc2
Jetté & Jones 2000: 385, 996; Jones 1978: 136. Polysemy: 'dirt / soil / sand / dust / ashes / clay / mud / any granular substance'. This is quoted in [Jones 1978] as the default expression for 'sand'; browsing through available sources confirms this, cf. the examples: "She brought some sand in" [Jones 1978: 28], "Some sand fell" [Jones 1978: 58], "There is lots of sand" [Jones 1978: 136], "the place became invisible with sand (due to a storm)" 24], "sand went in my eyes again" [Jetté & Jones 2000: 488], "it digs sand" [Jetté & Jones 2000: 489], "sand was flying" [Jetté & Jones 2000: 508], "water filter", lit. "that in which liquid is drained from sand" [Jetté & Jones 2000: 649].
A second candidate is ɬoːy̥ 'sand, fine gravel' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 417] which is presumably more rare. Cf. the only found example: "he is walking (pushing) soft sand, fine gravel (which fills his tracks)" [Jetté & Jones 2000: 67].
Degexit'an:θoːy̥3
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 43.
Sarsi:cʰá-cìɬ4
Hoijer & Joël 1963: 74; Hoijer 1956: 223. Literally 'rough stones' with cʰá 'stone' q.v. and =cīɬ 'to be rough to the feel, like chapped hands' [Li 1930b: 23].
NUMBER:71
WORD:say
Hupa:=neː1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 775; Golla 1996: 81. Glossed as 'to say something, make noise, speak'. The perfective stem is =ne-ʔ < *=neː-ʔ.
Goddard 1912: 65. Polysemy: 'to say / to speak, talk'. Used in all grammatical persons.
Distinct from =yiːš 'to speak, talk', used in 1-2 person only [Goddard 1912: 62].
Taldash Galice:=tat2
Hoijer 1973: 64; Hoijer 1956: 223; Landar 1977: 295. Suppletive verb =tat [imperf.] / =ni ~ =niy-a [perf.] with polysemy: 'to say / to tell, speak'.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:=ni1
Lovick 2005: 31 ex. 1.27a, 44 ex. 2.5c, etc. Polysemy: 'to say / to call'.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:=ni1
Boraas 2010: 56-58. Polysemy: 'to say / to tell / to deem / to call'.
Inland Tanaina:=ni1
Wassillie 1979: 85; Lovick 2005: 25 ex. 1.18. At least synchronically distinct from the verbs =nax [imperf.] / =nak [perf.] 'to speak; to talk' [Wassillie 1979: 93, 100] and =l=nǝk 'to tell' [Wassillie 1979: 101].
Iliamna Tanaina:
Not attested.
Central Ahtena:=niː1
Kari 1990: 304, 582.
Lower Ahtena: =niː [Kari 1990: 304, 582].
Western Ahtena: =niː [Kari 1990: 304, 582].
Mentasta Ahtena:=niː1
Kari 1990: 304, 582.
AHT_NOTES:
Paradigm: =niː [imperf.] / =ne-ʔ [perf.]. Generic verb of speech with polysemy: 'to say / to think'.
Distinct from qʰ=...=yeː- 'to talk, speak', used with sg. & dual. subj. [Kari 1990: 424, 685] and hne=...=t=l=ʁaːs 'to talk, speak', used with pl. subj. [Kari 1990: 206].
As noted in [Saxon & Siemens 1996: xi], this is actually a suppletive verb with the root =sĩ́ used in the 1st p. sg. and the root =(n)tí elsewhere. Cf. á=tí 'he said it' vs. á=éh=sĩ́ 'I said it' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 3, 4].
Kari 1994: 206-207, 468; Tuttle 2009: 171. Paradigm: =ni ~ =ti [imperf.] / =ni-ʔ ~ =ti-ʔ [perf.]. The variant =ni is used for 1 & 2 p. sg., =ti for pl. For 3 p. sg. either =ni or =ti can be used, as may be seen from the data in [Kari 1994: 206-207].
Distinct from the verbs for 'to talk, speak': x=...=ya-y̥ [imperf.] / x=...=yʌ-ʔ [perf.] used with sg. & dual. subj. [Kari 1994: 335, 481], kʰǝna=...=t=l=ɣʌʂ used with pl. subj. [Kari 1994: 133, 481].
Central Carrier:=ni1
Poser 1998/2013: 884, 1222, 1259; Poser 2011a: 179; Antoine et al. 1974: 327. Paradigm: =ni [imperf.] / =ni-ʔ [perf.] / =ni-h [customary]. Polysemy: 'to say / to sound'.
Distinct from =ɬ=tʌk 'to speak' [Poser 1998/2013: 923, 1219, 1251].
Koyukon:=niː1
Jetté & Jones 2000: 436, 997; Jones 1978: 136. Paradigm: =niː [imperf.] / =niː-ʔ [perf.]. Also used with the "classifier" ɬ-.
Distinct from suppletive =(h)aːy̥ [imperf.] / =yoː-ʔ [perf.] glossed as 'to talk, speak, say, utter, pronounce, articulate', used with sg. & dual. subj. [Jetté & Jones 2000: 704] and its counterpart =l=ʁus 'to make noise, holler, clamor, shout; to talk, speak', used with pl. subj. [Jetté & Jones 2000: 258].
Degexit'an:=neː1
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1976: 37; Chapman 1914: 214. Paradigm: =neː [imperf.] / =neː-ʔ [perf.]. Cf. some examples: "Down here they are going to stamp, they said", "What are they saying?", "Say it all again" [Taff et al. 2007].
Distinct from suppletive =(h)aːy̥ [imperf.] / ŋoː-ʔ [perf.] 'to talk' [Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1976: 2], which is probably restricted to sg. subj., and its counterpart =ʁʊʂ [imperf.] / =ʁoːʂ [perf.] 'to talk (pl. subj.)' [Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1976: 26].
Distinct from the verb =ʔeːn 'to look (on, at, around, etc.)' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 733; Golla 1996: 58] (quoted in [Hoijer 1956: 223] as 'to see').
Mattole:=ʔiːn2
Li 1930: 74-75. Synchronic polysemy: 'to do (ɬ-classifier) / to have, possess (l-classifier) / to be related to (l-classifier) / to see (l-classifier)'. Paradigm: =ʔiŋ (< *=ʔin) [light imperf.], =ʔiːn (< *=ʔin-i) [heavy imperf.], =ʔiŋʔ (< *=ʔin-ʔ) [perf.]. The perfective stem =ʔiŋʔ (heavy =ʔiːʔŋ < *=ʔin-ʔ-i) with the zero-classifier also functions as the separate verb 'to look' [Li 1930: 75].
Bear River dialect: =saŋ, attested in the expression 'nothing I see' [Goddard 1929: 300].
Kato:=sǝs1
Goddard 1912: 67, 73. The paradigm is irregular: =sǝs [imperf.] / =cʰan ~ =saŋ [perf.]. Polysemy: 'to see / to find'.
Distinct from the verb =ʔiŋʔ (< *=ʔin-ʔ [perf.])'to look (on, at, etc.)' [Goddard 1912: 60].
Wassillie 1979: 86; Holton et al. 2004: 24. The root =ʔan displays synchronous polysemy: 'to do (t-classifier) / to have, possess (l-classifier) / to see (zero- or ɬ-classifier) / to look (ɬ-classifier)' [Wassillie 1979: 29, 49, 60, 86].
Iliamna Tanaina:
Not attested.
Central Ahtena:=ɬ=ʔeːn2
Kari 1990: 86, 583.
Lower Ahtena: =ɬ=ʔeːn [Kari 1990: 86, 583].
Western Ahtena: =ɬ=ʔeːn [Kari 1990: 86, 583].
Mentasta Ahtena:=ɬ=ʔeːn2
Kari 1990: 86, 583.
AHT_NOTES:
The root =ʔeːn displays synchronous polysemy: 'to do (t-classifier) / to have, possess (t-classifier) / to see (ɬ-classifier) / to look (ɬ-classifier)' [Kari 1990: 83 ff., 87].
Dogrib:=ʔĩ̀2
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 60, 123, 207. The meaning 'to look' is expressed by the same root or by =ntá 'to look at, watch' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 126].
North Slavey (Hare):=tà3
Rice 1978: 251, 414, 532. Polysemy: 'to see / to look'.
The old root is retained as =ʔĩ̀ 'to search for' [Rice 1978: 265, 408]. In [Hoijer 1956: 222], the root 'to see' is quoted as =ʔi, which probably reflects archaic usage of =ʔĩ̀.
Tanacross:=n=h=ʔẽh2
Arnold et al. 2009: 168, 225; Holton 2000: 351; Shinen 1958: 66. Paradigm: =n=h=ʔẽh [imperf.] / =n=h=ʔẽ́ː-ʔ [perf.]. Polysemy: 'to see / to look'. Initial =n= is the thematic prefix, =h= is the "classifier".
Synchronously distinct from the verb for 'to do': =tʼ=t=ẽ́ʔẽ [imperf.] / =tʼ=t=ẽ́-ʔ [perf.] with the abnormal root shape VʔV, thematic(?) =tʼ= and the "classifier" =t= [Arnold et al. 2009: 99; Holton 2000: 349] (different paradigm in [Holton 2000: 167, 270]).
Kari 1994: 11, 470; Tuttle 2009: 174. In [Tuttle 2009], quoted as =n=l=ʔan̥. Polysemy: 'to see / to look'. Paradigm: =ʔan̥ [imperf.] / =ʔan-ʔ [perf.] / =ʔi-ɬ [future] / =ʔi-y̥ [customary].
Synchronously, the root coincides with =ɬ=ʔan̥ 'to do' [Kari 1994: 8].
Central Carrier:=ʔen2
Poser 1998/2013: 890, 1218, 1248; Poser 2011a: 182; Antoine et al. 1974: 327.
Distinct from =ʔen 'to do', which is mostly used with the "classifiers" t= or ɬ= [Poser 1998/2013: 673, 1218, 1248; Antoine et al. 1974: 305].
Koyukon:=nǝ=ɬ=ʔaːn̥2
Jetté & Jones 2000: 21, 999; Jones 1978: 139. Paradigm: =ʔaːn̥ [imperf.] / =ʔaːn-ʔ [perf.]. The root possesses synchronic polysemy: 'to do, act thus to / to see / to look'.
Degexit'an:=tθʰaː-y̥1
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1976: 53; Chapman 1914: 220. Paradigm: =tθʰaː-y̥ [imperf.] / =tθʰoːn̥ [perf.]. It should be noted that the imperfective stem =tθʰaː-y̥ is only quoted in [Kari 1976: 53], not being confirmed by other sources.
This looks like the most basic and frequently used verb for 'to see', cf. some examples: "She saw it", "They saw a wolf", "Did you guys see my older brother?", "I didn't see a red fox", "We saw a moose with the binoculars", "He saw a pretty woman" [Taff et al. 2007], "He paddled all day, and again he saw another stake set up" [Chapman 1914: 116].
The second candidate is =ʔaːn̥ [imperf.] / =ʔaːn-ʔ [perf.] with synchronic polysemy: 'to do / to see / to look' [Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1976: 6; Chapman 1914: 209]. Cf. some examples where =ʔaːn̥ is translated as 'to see': "I saw him a while ago", "I saw an animal", "I saw a black bear", "I saw a caribou", "Twice I saw a whirlwind" "binoculars (lit.: far away in it we see)", "mirror (lit.: in it we see ourselves)" [Taff et al. 2007], "Just let him see it!" [Chapman 1914: 114].
It seems, however, that, firstly, =ʔaːn̥ is more rarely used for the uncontrolled action 'to see' than =tθʰaː-y̥ / =tθʰoːn̥ is. Secondly, the main meaning of =ʔaːn̥ is the controlled action 'to look'.
Cf. the following passages where =ʔaːn̥ 'to look' is opposed to =tθʰoːn̥ 'to see': "Then he looked (=ʔaːn-ʔ) about, and upward also, and saw (=tθʰoːn̥) a house" [Chapman 1914: 116], "'Though I have been looking (=ʔaːn-ʔ) all over the world', she said, 'I could see (=tθʰoːn̥) no one but you'" [Chapman 1914: 140].
Sarsi:=ʔìn-2
Li 1930b: 16; Hoijer 1956: 222; Cook 1984: 241. Paradigm: =ʔìh ~ =ʔìn- [imperf.] / =ʔí ~ =ʔín- [perf.]. Cf. some examples: "I saw my wife, but I did not see my son" [Cook 1984: 81], "The woman saw him, the way he walks" [Cook 1984: 91], "When I went home, I saw him" [Cook 1984: 92], "He saw Crees who were on the warpath" [Cook 1984: 106], "I showed him (= I made him see it)" [Cook 1984: 116], "I saw it", "was seen" [Cook 1984: 126], "He saw me (really)" [Cook 1984: 169], "I'm blind, cannot see" [Cook 1984: 221], "I'll go to see him" [Cook 1984: 287].
A second candidate is =s=cʰáh glossed simply as 'to see' in [Li 1930b: 23], but the few attested instances suggest that its meaning is rather 'to meet, see each other': "Can he see him?" [Cook 1984: 48], "I will see you tomorrow" [Cook 1984: 52], "I would like to see him" [Cook 1984: 114], "They want to see me" [Cook 1984: 115].
NUMBER:72
WORD:see
Hupa:=cʰaːn1
Perfective stem.
Mattole:
Kato:=cʰan ~ =saŋ1
Perfective stem.
Taldash Galice:
Upper Inlet Tanaina:
Outer Inlet Tanaina:
Inland Tanaina:
Iliamna Tanaina:
Central Ahtena:
Mentasta Ahtena:
Dogrib:
North Slavey (Hare):
Tanacross:
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):
Lower Tanana (Minto):
Central Carrier:
Koyukon:
Degexit'an:=tθʰoːn̥1
Perfective.
Sarsi:
NUMBER:73
WORD:seed
Hupa:possr=saːy ~ possr=saːy-ʔ1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 782; Golla 1996: 82; Golla 1964: 112. Originates from *=saːyi-. Glossed in [Golla 1996] as 'small seeds'.
Li 1930: 131. Glossed as 'seeds'. Synchronically, can be analyzed as =cʰai-ʔ or =cʰaiʔ.
Bear River dialect: not attested.
Kato:
Not attested.
Taldash Galice:m=ãː=se-ʔ1
Hoijer 1973: 53. Quoted by Hoijer as mãːseʔ without morpheme boundaries, although in light of external evidence, the most probable analysis is m=ãː=se-ʔ 'its seed' with the possessive pronoun m= [Hoijer 1966: 321, 322]. However, the nasalized morpheme =ãː= remains unclear (the gender prefix -n-?).
Upper Inlet Tanaina:possr=n=cʼǝs-a2
Kari 2007: 62, 357; Kari 1977: 77.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:possr=n=cʼǝs-ʔa2
Kari 2007: 62, 357; Kari 1977: 77.
Inland Tanaina:possr=n=cʼǝs-a2
Kari 2007: 62, 357; Kari 1977: 77.
Iliamna Tanaina:possr=n=cʼǝs-ʔa2
Kari 2007: 62, 357; Kari 1977: 77.
TFN_NOTES:
In [Kari 2007; Kari 1977], kʼǝ=n=cʼǝs-(ʔ)a is glossed with polysemy: 'seed / pit' and allocated in the topical section "General plant and tree parts". Literally 'a stone/pebble' with the root cʼǝs, which synchronically means 'rock, boulder (stationary)' (see notes on 'stone'), and the gender prefix =n=.
Distinct from the specific term qʰinunǝl=yaχ-i 'seeds (i.e., of agricultural plants), vegetable seeds, bulbs, seed potatoes' (all dialects) [Kari 2007: 59; Kari 1977: 77], literally 'the one that grows in again'.
Distinct from Outer Inlet simina 'seeds (i.e., of agricultural plants)' [Kari 2007: 59], borrowed from the Russian plural form siminˈa 'seeds (in general)'.
Central Ahtena:kʼʸe=n=cʼes-eʔ2
Kari 1990: 411, 583; Kari & Buck 1975: 31; Smelcer 2010: 108.
Western Ahtena: kʼʸe=n=cʼes-eʔ [Kari 1990: 411, 583; Kari & Buck 1975: 31; Smelcer 2010: 108].
Mentasta Ahtena:kʼʸe=n=cʼes-eʔ2
Kari 1990: 411, 583; Kari & Buck 1975: 31; Smelcer 2010: 108.
AHT_NOTES:
Polysemy: 'seed / pit'. Literally 'a stone/pebble' with the root cʼǝs 'stone (in general)' q.v. plus the gender prefix =n=. Initial kʼʸe= is the fossilized indefinite possessive pronoun [Kari 1990: 35].
Distinct from the specific term tʼa=ne=l=yeː-s-i 'vegetable seed' (all dialects) [Kari 1990: 267], literally 'the plural objects within' from the classificatory verb =laː / =l=yaː 'to handle plural objects' [Kari 1990: 264] and the adverbial prefix tʼa= 'beneath, within, inner' [Kari 1990: 339].
Dogrib:tʼásìː téhšéː wéčìː3
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 99, 207. tʼásìː téhšéː means 'things grow' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 15, 99]. wéčìː (or possessed wé=čìː?) is less clear, but it means 'seeds' in the collocation kʼàláčʰóh wéčìː 'fluffy seeds' [Saxon & Siemens n.d.].
North Slavey (Hare):tʼá=h=sĩ̀ yáríyiè3
Rice 1978: 99, 169. The collocation literally means 'things grow' with tʼá=h=sĩ̀ 'thing' (from =sĩ̀ 'to make') and =yiè 'to grow' [Rice 1978: 482].
Tanacross:ù=ní=h=tθʼéːʔ4
Arnold et al. 2009: 226. Glossed as 'seed in plant, fruits'. Looks like a nominalized verbal form, but the meaning of the root =tθʼéːʔ is unclear.
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):ndeš̬ʸeː5
Milanowski, p.c. Morphologically unclear.
Scottie Creek: min=tθʰe-ʔ ~ min=tθʰè-ʔ 'seed', attested in the examples "berry seed" [John 1997: 57], "The silverberry has seeds" [John 1997: 60]. Literally ‘stone of min’, the meaning of min is unclear.
Lower Tanana (Minto):tǝn=tθʰa-ʔ6
Kari 1994: 306, 470. Polysemy: 'seed / fruit stone'. Literally 'stone of tǝn', the meaning of tǝn is unclear, cf. tǝn 'land, terrain' [Kari 1994: 69].
Central Carrier:hanʌyeh=maiʔ7
Poser 1998/2013: 168, 891; Poser 2011a: 182; Antoine et al. 1974: 102, 327. Literally 'growing berries': verbal form ha=nʌ=yeh 'it (plant) grows' + mai 'berry' [Poser 1998/2013: 288; Antoine et al. 1974: 147], borrowed from Gitxsan (Tsimshianic) maːyʔ 'berry, fruit'. Final -ʔ in hanʌyeh=maiʔ can therefore be considered as part of the root. The semantic derivation 'berry' > 'seed' seems to be an inner Carrier innovation; because of this, we treat hanʌyeh=maiʔ 'seed' as a "native" item.
Koyukon:pǝcʼǝn̥ kʼǝ=tǝnǝyaːʁ-ǝ8
Jetté & Jones 2000: 698. A poorly documented item. The only known expression pǝcʼǝn̥ kʼǝ=tǝnǝyaːʁ-ǝ 'seeds' literally means 'some plant [occurs] from it' < tǝnǝyaːʁ-ǝ 'plants, vegetation, vegetable' (literally 'that which grows'), =cʼǝn̥ 'from'.
For the Upper dialect, possr=ǝn=ƛʰaː 'seed, pit' is quoted [Jetté & Jones 2000: 562] < ƛʰaː 'stone' q.v.
Degexit'an:vǝcʼǝn χʊnoːɬyaːl9
Kari 1978: 17. A poorly documented item. The only known expression vǝcʼǝn чʊnoːɬyaːl 'seeds' literally means 'vegetation [occurs] from it' < noɬyal ~ xu=noɬyal 'vegetation' [Kari 1978: 17] (literally 'that which grows').
Sarsi:
Not documented.
NUMBER:74
WORD:sit
Hupa:yaː=ʔaː1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 582 No. 16.10; Golla 1996: 85. Used with sg. subj. With pl. subj the verbal stem yaː=ʔeːƛʼ 'to sit' is used instead. Literal meaning: 'to extend upward' with the directional prefix yaː- 'up into the air, movement off the surface of the ground' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 803; Golla 1970: 124] and the suppletive verb =ʔaː [sg. subj.] / =ʔeːƛʼ [pl. subj.] 'to extend' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 730, 732; Golla 1996: 32; Golla 1970: 141].
Distinct from verbs for 'to sit down', which are based on the roots =cʰah ~ =cʰaːt [imperf., sg. subj.] / =taː ~ =ta-y [perf., sg. subj.] / =tiɬ [imperf., pl. subj.] / =teːƛʼ [perf., pl. subj.], see [Golla 1996: 85-86; Sapir & Golla 2001: 734, 745]. The general meaning of =taː ~ =ta-y is 'to stay, live' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 745; Golla 1996: 57, 90]; the general meaning of =tiɬ / =teːƛʼ is 'to go, move' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 750]; on the contrary, the root =cʰah ~ =cʰaːt seems unattested outside the stems for 'to sit down' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 734].
Mattole:=taː2
Li 1930: 85, 107. Suppletive verb =cʰaː [imperf.] / =taː [light perf.] / =tai < *=ta-i [heavy perf.]. Polysemy: 'to sit / to sit down'. As follows from [Li 1930: 71-72], in the stative meaning, only the perfective stem is used.
Bear River dialect: the same suppletive verb =sa / =ta-i 'to sit / to sit down' [Goddard 1929: 320].
Kato:=ta2
Goddard 1912: 69. Polysemy: 'to sit / to sit down / to remain'. Probably used with sg. subj. only.
Distinct from =ʔiːl < *=ʔiɬ-i [imperf.] / =ʔiːlʔ < *=ʔiɬ-ʔ-i [perf.] 'to sit / to sit down / to stay', used with pl. subj. [Goddard 1912: 60].
There is also a rare verb =sat, glossed as 'to sit' in [Goddard 1912: 66], although textual evidence suggests that the translation 'to camp' vel sim. should be more appropriate.
Taldash Galice:=taː2
Hoijer 1973: 63; Hoijer 1956: 223; Landar 1977: 295. Polysemy: 'to sit / to be at home'. Used with both sg. & pl. subj.
Distinct from the verb =sat [imperf.] / =saʔ < *=sat-ʔ [perf.], glossed as 'to sit, take a seat' [Hoijer 1973: 70]. This verb is apparently more rare than =taː; perhaps the basic meaning of =sat is specifically 'to sit down'.
Distinct from the verb =kʰãː, used with pl. subj. and glossed as 'to be sitting (there); to live (there)' [Hoijer 1973: 68].
Upper Inlet Tanaina:=tu2
Lovick 2005: 111, 216. Examples: "When they returned their baby was sitting there" [Lovick 2005: 111 ex. 3.47], "The baby crane was sitting in the nest" [Lovick 2005: 216 ex. 6.6b]. No examples with pl. subj. have been found.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:=tu2
Boraas 2010: 18 et passim. Cf. the examples: "Sit by me" [Boraas 2010: 24], "He is sitting against me" [Boraas 2010: 18], "there near them he was sitting on a bush" [Boraas 2010: 25], "she is just sitting" [Boraas 2010: 45]. No examples with pl. subj. have been found.
The instance "Sit by me" should point to the polysemy: 'to sit / to sit down' for =tu, although there is also a specific verb for 'to sit down': =cʰut, cf. "she sat down beside the fire" [Boraas 2010: 19], "she sat down behind him" [Boraas 2010: 26].
Inland Tanaina:=tu2
Tenenbaum 1978: 48, 141; Holton et al. 2004: 39. Polysemy: 'to sit / to sit down / to stay', used with sg. & dual. subj. In [Tenenbaum 1978: 141], =tu is treated as a classificatory verb 'to handle a single animate object'. Paradigm: =tu [imperf.] / =tu-ʔ [perf.].
Examples: "I am sitting" [Tenenbaum 1978: 97], "he's sitting", "I was sitting" [Tenenbaum 1978: 48], "we (dual.) are sitting" [Tenenbaum 1978: 63]. The meaning 'to sit down' should follow from the instance "Sit by me!" [Tenenbaum 1978: 202].
Distinct from =t=l=cʼi with polysemy: 'to sit / to stay', used with pl. subj. [Tenenbaum 1978: 233, 237 #48; Holton et al. 2004: 39].
Distinct from =cʰut / =cʰǝɬ [fut.] 'to sit down' [Wassillie 1979: 89; Tenenbaum 1978: 59].
Iliamna Tanaina:
Not attested.
Central Ahtena:=taː2
Kari 1990: 132, 588.
Lower Ahtena: =taː [Kari 1990: 132, 588].
Western Ahtena: =taː [Kari 1990: 132, 588].
Mentasta Ahtena:=taː2
Kari 1990: 132, 588.
AHT_NOTES:
Paradigm: =taː [imperf.] / =ta-ʔ [perf.], see the additional forms in [Kari 1990: 691]. Polysemy: 'to sit / to sit down (t-classifier) / to stay', applicable to sg. subj.
Distinct from the specific verb =t=cʰaːt 'to sit down', applicable to sg. subj. (all dialects) [Kari 1990: 370].
Distinct from generic =t=l=cʼiː 'to sit / to sit down / to stay', applicable to pl. subj. (all dialects) [Kari 1990: 412, 588, 692].
Dogrib:=tá2
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 117, 210. Polysemy: 'to be located / to sit / to stay'; applied to sg. subj.
Distinct from =kʰé 'to be located / to sit / to stay' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 105, 210], applied to dual. subj.
Distinct from =kʼʷé 'to be located / to sit / to stay' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 105, 210], applied to pl. subj.
North Slavey (Hare):=tà2
Rice 1978: 356, 414, 535; Hoijer 1956: 222. Used with sg. subj. Polysemy: 'to sit / to sit down / to stay / to visit'. Cf. some examples: "I'm sitting opposite the wall", "He's sitting near me" [Rice 1978: 215], "Sit down", "Did you stay at home?", "I like to visit them" [Rice 1978: 356].
Distinct from =kʰiè 'to sit / to sit down' [Rice 1978: 367, 440], used with dual. subj.
Distinct from =t=wʼì 'to sit / to sit down' [Rice 1978: 361, 480], used with pl. subj.
Tanacross:=tàh2
Arnold et al. 2009: 235; Holton 2000: 160, 351; Shinen 1958: 56. Applied to sg. subj. Polysemy: 'to sit / to stay'
Distinct from =l=tθʼìh 'to sit / to stay' [Arnold et al. 2009: 235; Holton 2000: 160, 351; Shinen 1958: 56], applied to pl. subj.
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):=tah2
Milanowski 2009: 40, 106, 116. Paradigm: =tah [imperf.] / =ta-ʔ [perf.] / =taː-ɬ [fut.] / =taː-k [customary]. Polysemy: 'to sit / to stay'. Applicable to both humans and animals. Probably used with sg. subj. only. For pl subj., the verb =l=tθʼih is quoted in [Milanowski 2009: 116].
Lower Tanana (Minto):=tʌ2
Kari 1994: 76, 475; Tuttle 2009: 180. Paradigm: =tʌ [imperf.] / =tʌ-ʔ [perf.] / =tʌ-ɬ [fut.] / =tʌ-y̥ [customary]. Polysemy: 'to sit / to sit down / to stay'. Applicable to sg. subj.
Distinct from =l=tθʼi 'to sit / to sit down / to stay' [Kari 1994: 317, 475; Tuttle 2009: 181] used with pl. subj.
Central Carrier:=ta2
Poser 1998/2013: 906, 1219, 1250; Poser 2011a: 188; Antoine et al. 1974: 329. Polysemy: 'to sit / to sit down / to stay'. Applicable to sg. subj.
Distinct from =kʰe 'to sit / to be located', used with dual. subj. [Poser 1998/2013: 906, 1221, 1255].
Distinct from =ɬ=c̪ʼi 'to sit / to be located', used with pl. subj. [Poser 1998/2013: 906, 1223, 1263].
Koyukon:=toː2
Jetté & Jones 2000: 139, 1007; Jones & Kwaraceius 1997: 44. Paradigm: =toː [imperf.] / =toː-ʔ [perf.]. Polysemy: 'to sit / to sit down / to stay / to dwell'. Applicable to sg. & dual. subj.
Distinct from =l=ƛʼiː 'to sit / to sit down / to stay / to dwell' used with pl. subj. [Jetté & Jones 2000: 593; Jones & Kwaraceius 1997: 90].
Degexit'an:=toː2
Taff et al. 2007; Chapman 1914: 226. Polysemy: 'to sit / to sit down / to stay / to dwell'. Applicable to sg. subj.
Distinct from =tθʼeː 'to sit / to sit down / to stay / to dwell' used with pl. subj. [Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1976: 59; Chapman 1914: 220].
Sarsi:=tɒ́2
Li 1930b: 18; Hoijer 1956: 223; Cook 1984: 144. Paradigm: =tɒ́ [imperf.] / =tɒ̀-ʔ [perf.], meaning 'to sit'. Cf. the active sub-paradigm with the meaning 'to sit down': =tɒ̀ [imperf.] / =tɒ́ [perf.] [Cook 1984: 144]. Used with sg. subj.
Distinct from =V=cʼí [imperf.] / =V=cʼì-ʔ [perf.] 'to sit', =V=cʼìh [imperf.] / =V=cʼíh [perf.] 'to sit down' [Li 1930b: 24; Cook 1984: 144], used with pl. subj.
Distinct from =cʰɒ́ʔ ~ =cʰɒ́t- [imperf.] / =cʰɒ̀ʔ ~ =cʰɒ̀t- [perf.] 'to sit down quickly' [Li 1930b: 23].
Li 1930: 127. Two Mattole words for 'skin' are quoted in [Li 1930], both of them without any semantic specifications. Both seem to be applicable to a human, as is obvious from the parallel expressions for 'eyelid': analytic possr=nˈaːg-eʔ tˈaːs-eʔ and compound possr=naʔ-cʰˈeʔs (the first element is possr=nˈaːg-eʔ ~ =naʔ- 'eye' q.v.). We treat these terms as synonyms.
Bear River dialect: possr=lːahanːe 'skin' [Goddard 1929: 320], an unclear form.
Kato:possr=sǝc1
Goddard 1912: 15, 22. Also used in the expression for 'bark' q.v. Note the de-ejectivization -c < *cʼ.
Kari 2007: 86, 358; Kari 1977: 95; Wassillie 1979: 89.
Iliamna Tanaina:possr=yǝs4
Kari 2007: 86, 358; Kari 1977: 95.
TFN_NOTES:
Polysemy: 'human skin / animal hide' in all the dialects (for the latter meaning see [Kari 2007: 15]).
Central Ahtena:possr=zes5
Kari 1990: 459, 589; Kari & Buck 1975: 60; Smelcer 2010: 44. Lower Ahtena: possr=zes [Kari 1990: 459, 589; Kari & Buck 1975: 60; Smelcer 2010: 44].
Western Ahtena: possr=zes [Kari 1990: 459, 589; Kari & Buck 1975: 60; Smelcer 2010: 44].
Mentasta Ahtena:possr=zes5
Kari 1990: 459, 589; Kari & Buck 1975: 60; Smelcer 2010: 44.
AHT_NOTES:
Among the great number of specific terms for various kinds of skin and hide [Kari 1990: 589], two are applicable to humans. possr=zes seems to be the most generic term with polysemy: 'skin / hide', whereas possr=cʼiːs is explicitly glossed by Kari as 'skin of human'. In [Smelcer 2010: 44], =zes is quoted as the only term for 'human skin', whereas in [Kari & Buck 1975], both are quoted. We have to treat them as synonyms.
Dogrib:possr=kʰʷõ̀7
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 44, 210.
There are two documented terms for 'skin': possr=kʰʷõ̀ with polysemy: 'flesh (both human and animal) / human skin' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 44], and possr=wò 'skin' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 47]. Both are applicable to humans, as follows from the animate possessive kó=. For possr=kʰʷõ̀ 'human skin', cf. the found example: "My skin is itchy" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 37]. The second one - possr=wò - also represents the basic word for 'animal hide', cf. é=wò 'caribou hide', lit. 'its hide' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 37], cṍ-wò 'muskrat skin' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 23], káh-wò 'rabbit skin' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 39], nṍkèː-wò 'fox skin' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 85]. We treat possr=kʰʷõ̀ and possr=wò as synonyms.
North Slavey (Hare):possr=tʼúw-éʔ8
Rice 1978: 99, 170. Polysemy: 'skin / bark'.
Distinct from possr=wé-ʔ 'hide, skin, leather' [Rice 1978: 105, 144], which is apparently applicable specifically to animals.
Milanowski 2009: 25, 70. Applicable to both humans and animals. Polysemy: 'skin / bark' q.v.
Northway: possr=θɯh 'skin' [Milanowski 2007: 16].
Scottie Creek: possr=θ̬ɯh 'skin' [John 1997: 16].
Lower Tanana (Minto):possr=ðǝθ5
Kari 1994: 90, 475; Tuttle 2009: 181. A generic term, applicable to humans and animals. Polysemy: 'skin / belt'.
Central Carrier:possr=z̪ʌz̪5
Poser 1998/2013: 590, 909; Poser 2011a: 189; Antoine et al. 1974: 56, 329. Generic term applicable to humans, mammals and fishes.
Koyukon:possr=lǝɬ5
Jetté & Jones 2000: 392, 1007; Jones 1978: 149. Generic term glossed with polysemy: 'skin of human or animal, hide, pelt / peeling / wrapper / sheath / cover / belt / tarpaulin'.
Degexit'an:possr=qʰoːɢ9
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 32. Polysemy: 'human skin / covering, surface'. Specified as 'outer skin' in [Kari 1978: 32]. Cf. the attested examples: "The skin on my hands is dry", "Her face skin is rough" [Taff et al. 2007], "When they had got through, his skin was covered with blood" [Chapman 1914: 177].
Distinct from ðǝθ 'animal skin, hide' [Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 60; Chapman 1914: 213, 219], alienable possession. Cf. some examples: "He's scraping a skin", "That's a nice wolf fur" [Taff et al. 2007], "Their house was full of every kind of skin that there is upon this earth below" [Chapman 1914: 147].
The third candidate is possr=laː=qʼaːð, glossed simply as 'skin' in [Kari 1978: 32] (laː- '?'). This word is attested in [Chapman 1914: 228] as simply possr=qʼaːð 'skin' with such examples as: "you must put many fine marten-skins beside me in the kayak [...] and beaver-skins too, fine ones" [Chapman 1914: 126]. It seems that possr=qʼaːð means specifically 'fur-skin' in Chapman's texts. Apparently the same word is attested in [Taff et al. 2007] as possr=leː=qʼaːð 'bark' in the only example "Porcupine is sitting on a birch tree eating birch bark" (this is not the main word for 'bark' q.v.).
Sarsi:yì=s=ƛɒ́ ~ yì=s=ƛā10
Hoijer & Joël 1963: 74; Cook 1984: 68. Polysemy: 'skin (of human, animal) / bag'. Initial yi= is the fossilized 4th person possessive [Cook 1984: 64]; =s= is not entirely clear.
Sapir & Golla 2001: 792; Golla 1996: 86. In [Golla 1996], quoted as =wuŋ. The perfective root variant is =waʔn < =wan-ʔ-i. As analyzed in [Sapir & Golla 2001: 721, 758], the normal expression for 'to sleep' originates from *obj-kʰʸi-(w)-wan, which literally means 'there is a sleep (wan) for X'. The element -kʰʸi- is not clear, however [Sapir & Golla 2001: 758].
Li 1930: 3, 120, 149 sub No. 87. Glossed as 'to dream' in the main dictionary section. The meaning 'to sleep' is expressed by the perfective stem of this verb.
Bear River dialect: =laːɬ 'to sleep' [Goddard 1929: 320; Li 1930: 3].
Kato:=laɬ2
Goddard 1912: 63. The heavy stem is =lal < *=laɬ-i. Glossed as 'to sleep, to dream'.
Distinct from the verb =yal 'to be sleepy' [Goddard 1912: 61], the morphological structure is the same as in the case of Hupa =waŋ 'to sleep': 'there is a sleepiness (yal) for X'.
Taldash Galice:=laɬ2
Hoijer 1973: 72; Hoijer 1956: 223. In [Hoijer 1973], glossed as 'to fall asleep, go to sleep; to dream about X'; in [Hoijer 1956], quoted as =laːl.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:=l=taq3
Kari 2007: 101, 358.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:=l=taq3
Kari 2007: 101, 358.
Inland Tanaina:=l=taq3
Kari 2007: 101, 358; Wassillie 1979: 89; Tenenbaum 1978: 65-66.
Iliamna Tanaina:=l=taq3
Kari 2007: 101, 358.
TFN_NOTES:
Distinct from the two nouns for 'sleep, sleepiness': Upper Inlet, Outer Inlet, Iliamna nuɬ, Inland vǝɬ [Kari 2007: 101].
Western Ahtena: naːɬ-...-t-l-ʔeːn [Kari 1990: 84, 590].
Mentasta Ahtena:naːɬ-...-t-l-ʔeːn4
Kari 1990: 84, 590.
AHT_NOTES:
The verbal expression naːɬ-...=t=l=ʔeːn synchronically means 'to do naːɬ' or 'to see naːɬ' with the verb =ʔeːn 'to do / to have, possess / to see / to look' [Kari 1990: 83 ff., 87] and the incorporated root naːɬ, which is the main meaningful element here. See the paradigm in [Kari 1990: 683].
It is unclear from [Kari 1990: 289], whether naːɬ (glossed by Kari as 'sleep') is attested elsewhere outside this verbal expression or not.
Distinct from =laːɬ 'to dream of obj' (all dialects) [Kari 1990: 270].
Dogrib:=tʰĩ́5
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 118, 210. This is the classificatory verb 'to handle rigid object' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: viii]. Used with sg. subj. In application to animates, with polysemy: 'to be located / to lie / to lie down / to sleep'.
Distinct from =tʰé 'to be located / to sleep' (also 'to lie'?), which is normally used with pl. animate subj., but in the meaning 'to sleep' can also have the habitual function (e.g., "I always sleep alone") [Saxon & Siemens 1996: ix, 73, 118, 210].
Cf. the noun mpé(h)- 'sleep', used in some verbal expressions [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 6].
North Slavey (Hare):=t=tʰĩ̀5
Rice 1978: 334, 462, 535; Hoijer 1956: 222. This is the so-called classificatory verb 'to be in position', applicable to sg. animate subj. [Rice 1989: 781], thus with polysemy: 'to be in a certain position / to lie / to lie down / to sleep'.
With pl. subj., the verb =l=yà is used with polysemy: 'to sleep / to stand' [Rice 1978: 334, 481, 535].
Distinct from =h=xiè [imperf.] / =h=xĩ̀ [perf.] 'to be sleepy' [Rice 1978: 209, 435].
Tanacross:=tʰẽː5
Arnold et al. 2009: 237; Holton 2000: 351; Shinen 1958: 56. Paradigm: =tʰẽː [imperf.] / =tʰé-ʔ [perf.]. Used with sg. subj.
Distinct from =h=tʰèːc 'to sleep' [Arnold et al. 2009: 237; Holton 2000: 351; Shinen 1958: 56], used with pl. subj.
With pl. subj., the verb =h=tʰiat 'to sleep' is used [Milanowski 2009: 54, 106].
Lower Tanana (Minto):=tʰa-n̥5
Kari 1994: 229, 476; Tuttle 2009: 182. Paradigm: =tʰa-n̥ [neuter imperf.] / =tʰa-ʔ [neuter perf.] / =tʰa-y̥ [momentaneous imperf.] / =tʰa-n̥ [momentaneous perf.]. Polysemy: 'to lie / to lie down / to recline / to sleep'. Applicable to sg. anim. subj.
Distinct from =tʰac [neuter imperf.] / =tʰaʂ [momentaneous imperf.] / =tʰac [momentaneous perf.] 'to lie / to recline / to sleep' used with pl. anim. subj. [Kari 1994: 232].
Distinct from the substantive bǝɬ 'sleep' [Kari 1994: 35].
Central Carrier:=tʰi5
Poser 1998/2013: 910, 1222, 1259; Poser 2011a: 191; Antoine et al. 1974: 329. Paradigm: =tʰi [imperf.] / =tʰe-ʔ [perf.]. Polysemy: 'to lie / to lie down / to sleep'. Used with sg. & dual. subj.
Distinct from =tʰez 'to lie / to lie down / to sleep', used with pl. subj. [Poser 1998/2013: 910, 1222, 1259].
Distinct from the baby-talk verb =kʼoʔ 'to sleep' (any subj.) [Poser 1998/2013: 910, 1221, 1256].
Distinct from the substantive pʌɬ 'sleep, dream' [Poser 1998/2013: 94].
Koyukon:pǝɬ-...-l-tʰǝn̥6
Jetté & Jones 2000: 511, 1009; Jones 1978: 150. Apparently used with both sg. & pl. subj. Literally 'to tʰǝn̥ the sleep' with the noun pǝɬ 'sleep, sleepiness, trance' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 95].
Distinct from =cǝt with polysemy: 'to lie / to lie down / to sleep', used with pl. subj. [Jetté & Jones 2000: 173; Jones & Kwaraceius 1997: 88].
Distinct from =tʰaː-n̥ / =tʰaː-ʔ 'to lie / to lie down' (sg. & dual. subj.) q.v.
Degexit'an:vǝɬ-aux6
Taff et al. 2007; Chapman 1914: 213. Browsing through available sources suggests that the most common expressions for 'to sleep' consist of the noun vǝɬ 'sleep' [Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 39; Chapman 1914: 213] plus various auxiliary verbs. Cf. some examples: "So then, one night, some one scratched her head while she slept" [Chapman 1914: 107], "go into the kashime and get some sleep! I am sleepy too" [Chapman 1914: 107], "All night long he did not sleep, thinking" [Chapman 1914: 110], "One morning, while the boys were still asleep, the woman went out early, before sunrise, to weep" [Chapman 1914: 127], "He fell asleep among the willows" [Taff et al. 2007]. The auxiliary verb in question can be =tʰǝŋ̥ [Kari 1976: 46], as in "Did you sleep well?" [Taff et al. 2007], or something else.
Distinct from the verb =ðoːɬ, glossed as 'to sleep' in [Chapman 1914: 219] and everywhere in his texts, but specified as 'to camp' in [Taff et al. 2007].
At least in one instance, the classificatory verb =tʰaːn̥ 'to handle animate obj.' [Kari 1976: 46] is used in the meaning 'to sleep': "I sleep back there" [Taff et al. 2007].
Sarsi:=tʰíh5
Li 1930b: 18; Hoijer 1956: 223; Cook 1984: 140. Ablaut paradigm: =tʰíh [imperf.] / =tʰàh [perf.]. Polysemy: 'to lie / to sleep / sg. living being is in position'; used with sg. subj.
Distinct from the verb used with pl. subj.: =V=tʰáːz [imperf., perf.] / =V=tʰáːz ~ =V=tʰác- 'to lie / to sleep / several living beings are in position' [Li 1930b: 19; Cook 1984: 140].
NUMBER:77
WORD:small
Hupa:=kiyeʔ ~ =kiyeʔ-c ~ =kiyʔ-c1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 753; Golla 1996: 57, 87. Verbal root 'to be small, little'; applied to sg. subject (animated or inanimate). Distinct from =keʔk-i-c ~ =keʔkʸ-i-c 'to be small, little', applied to pl. subject (animated or inanimate) [Sapir & Golla 2001: 753; Golla 1996: 57, 87]. Note the consonant symbolism kʸ > k in both forms; the final element -c is the widely applicable diminutive suffix -č(i) [Golla 1970: 261] also with the symbolic shift č > c [Golla 1970: 44, 263].
It is unclear whether the adverb mi=neːkʸi-c 'a little bit' [Golla 1996: 87] is related to one of the aforementioned roots (via a kind of contraction) or not.
Distinct from the word yaːʍ '(animal's) young' according to [Sapir & Golla 2001: 805; Golla 1996: 81 sub 'sapling', 100 sub 'trout', 110], not 'small (adj.)' in general (quoted, however, as generic 'small' in [Hoijer 1956: 223]).
Mattole:=kʼowʼ2
Li 1930: 107. Verbal root 'to be small'. The exact meaning and application are unknown (Li's only example is "I am small"). Distinct from =yaːx 'small (subst.)' [Li 1930: 125], see notes on 'bird'.
Bear River dialect: not attested.
Kato:possr=yaš-c3
Goddard 1912: 27. Browsing through [Goddard 1909] suggests that the default way to express the meaning 'small X' is the pattern subjpossr=yaš-c, literally 'X's its small'. Cf., e.g., se uː=yaš-c 'small stone' [Goddard 1909: 76 No. 10, 89 No. 15-16], tʰoːnai oː=yaš-c 'small fish' [Goddard 1909: 91 No. 1], oː=yaš-c šahnaʔ 'small creeks' [Goddard 1909: 91 No. 10], čʼiːpe uː=yaš-c 'small firs' [Goddard 1909: 93 No. 4] (opposed to =čʰah 'big [firs]' in the next phrase), etc. Originally possr=yaš-c is the substantive 'small, young' [Goddard 1912: 23]. The final morpheme -c is the diminutive suffix -č ~ -c [Goddard 1912: 27].
Taldash Galice:ʔi=s=tʼamʔ4
Hoijer 1973: 65. Literally 'it is small' (the verb =tʼamʔ 'to be small' seems unattested outside this expression). Cf. the variant ʔi=š=tʼamiʔ 'small, young' in [Jacobs 1968: 184 No. 10], which might be more archaic. In [Hoijer 1956: 223], quoted as ʔistʼanʔ, in [Landar 1977: 295], as ʔištʼanʔ - apparently an inaccurate transcription of final -m in both cases.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:
Not attested. Cf. the noun-like adjective quya [Lovick 2005: 32], documented only in the nominalized function 'baby' [Lovick 2005: 33 ex. 1.28a, 44 ex. 2.5c].
Outer Inlet Tanaina:qwa5
Boraas 2010: 39. Noun-like adjective, attested in conjunction with 'mountains', 'dogs', 'birch', 'houses'.
Distinct from the noun-like adjective (or the suffix) šla, attested in the expressions 'little friend (euphemistic name for wolverine)' [Boraas 2010: 39] and kʰi-šla 'a little more' (with the adverb/adjective kʰi 'more; another') [Boraas 2010: 43].
A second expression for 'small, little' is the noun-like adjective quya [Wassillie 1979: 57; Holton et al. 2004: 11], applied to babies (lit. 'small child') [Wassillie 1979: 6], winter birds [Wassillie 1979: 11], bulls ("yearling bull") [Wassillie 1979: 18], lambs [Wassillie 1979: 57], mouses [Wassillie 1979: 66], dolls [Wassillie 1979: 30], creek [Wassillie 1979: 26, 81], island [Wassillie 1979: 54], lake [Wassillie 1979: 109], tree [Tenenbaum 1978: 160].
We treat =ɬ=čʰǝkʼ and quya as synonyms.
Distinct from the noun-like adjective (or the suffix) šla, which means 'small, little', but in all attested examples, it is applied only to animated subjects, see [Wassillie 1979: 59] and cf. the Common Tanaina expression qaqa-šla 'bird' q.v., lit. 'little animal'.
Iliamna Tanaina:
Not attested.
Central Ahtena:=ɬ=cʰiʔ-i6
Kari 1990: 392, 591.
Lower Ahtena: =ɬ=cʰiʔ-i [Kari 1990: 392, 591].
Western Ahtena: =ɬ=cʰikʼʸ-i [Kari 1990: 392, 591].
Mentasta Ahtena:=ɬ=cʰikʸ-i6
Kari 1990: 392, 591.
AHT_NOTES:
Three generic expressions for 'small, little' are quoted in [Kari 1990: 591] (no dialectal difference in meaning or application is mentioned by the author).
1) The verb *=ɬ=cʰikʼʸ-e (with the modern dialectal variants [Kari 1990: 24]) 'to be small, little' [Kari 1990: 392, 591]. In Kari's examples, this verb is applied to 'it', 'him', 'children', 'plant', 'head', 'house'. Final -e is the negative exponent (see notes on 'not' and [Kari 1990: 66; Kari 1979: 169]).
2) The noun-like adjective qaːy 'little, small' [Kari 1990: 191, 591] In Kari's examples, applied to 'house', 'axe', 'animal'. As the second element of compounds, -qaːy forms the names of baby or yearling animals.
3) The noun-like adjective ƛʰe 'little, small' [Kari 1990: 355, 591], explained by Kari as "less productive than qaːy; mainly used in compounds".
We have to treat *=ɬ=cʰikʼʸ-e and qaːy as synonyms for all the dialects, although it is formally unclear whether *=ɬ=cʰikʼʸ-e can be used attributively, i.e., as a verb-like adjective (typically for Athapaskan) or not. Cf. the similar situation with 'big' q.v.
Dogrib:=čʰà-lé ~ =čʰà-lé-á7
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 42, 80, 211; Marinakis et al. 2007: 154. Innovative pronunciation: =cʰà-lé-(á). Verbal expression 'not to be big' with =čʰà 'to be big' q.v. and the negation -lé q.v. The optional -á is the diminutive suffix, see below.
=čʰà-lé-(á) seems to be the default full-fledged expression for 'small, little', cf. the found examples: "Her little sister went to sleep beside the old woman" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 16], "The houses are both too small" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 55], "small building" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 58], "The puppy is small" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 80].
Cf. the very common and productive diminutive suffix -á (-ã́ after a nasalized vowel) [Marinakis et al. 2007: 152 ff.].
North Slavey (Hare):=sèl-è8
Rice 1978: 261, 455, 536; Rice 1989: 241. Functions either as the verb =sèl-è 'to be small' or the noun-like adjective sèl-è 'small'.
Tanacross:kàːy5
Arnold et al. 2009: 239; Holton 2000: 31, 294.
Two expressions for 'small' are quoted in [Arnold et al. 2009: 239; Holton 2000: 294]: the noun-like adjective kàːy 'small' ("marten eat birds and small animals", "what a small amount!" [Arnold et al. 2009: 239], "the small boy is playing" [Holton 2000: 293]) and the verbal forms n=cʰûːŁ ~ n=cʰêŁ '(it is) small' ("mice are small" [Arnold et al. 2009: 239], "small house" [Holton 2000: 227]). We have to treat them as synonyms.
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):kaːy5
Milanowski 2009: 17.
Two Tetlin expressions for 'small' are documented: the noun-like adjective kaːy with polysemy: 'small, little / young' [Milanowski 2009: 17] and verbal n=cʰuːl with polysemy: 'small / short' [Milanowski 2009: 22], =cʰuːl 'to be small / to be short' [Milanowski 2009: 57, 120]. Both are accompanied with several textual examples. We have to treat them as synonyms.
Lower Tanana (Minto):=cʰǝƛʼ-ã8
Kari 1994: 285, 477; Tuttle 2009: 183. Verbal stem: 'to be small'. Also functions as noun-like adjectives: cʰǝƛʼ-ã 'small', cʰǝl-a 'small' [Kari 1994: 286]. Final -ã expresses negative dimensional semantics, see notes on 'not'. Cf. Kari's examples: "the sticks are small", "the prices are cheap", "small sled".
The second candidate is the noun-like adjective kʌ [Kari 1994: 114], an irregularly reduced form of the root kʌy, also attested in the substantivized adjective kʌy-aʔ 'young, baby or yearling animal' [Kari 1994: 114] (-aʔ is the adjective suffix). Cf. Kari's examples for kʌ 'small': 'small sled', 'baby boy', 'beaver kit'.
Since only =cʰǝƛʼ-ã is quoted in [Tuttle 2009: 183] for English 'small', we assume that kʌ is a more rare and marginal word.
Central Carrier:=tʼʌm-1
Poser 1998/2013: 912, 1222, 1261. Apparently borrowed from Babine =ɬ=tʼǝmʔ 'to be small'.
There are two main candidates for the meaning '(to be) small' in Central Carrier:
1) =tʼʌm 'to be small, little' [Poser 1998/2013: 912, 1222, 1261]. Cf. some of the numerous examples: "The ant is small and a good worker" [Antoine et al. 1974: 1], "We see mostly small whirlwinds" [Antoine et al. 1974: 3], "That man is small but very muscular" [Antoine et al. 1974: 41], "A small portion of devil's club is used to mix with herb medicines" [Antoine et al. 1974: 105], "The smaller boat took less freight in it" [Antoine et al. 1974: 110], "They gave me some small pups" [Antoine et al. 1974: 137], "The small room was built (joined) onto the house" [Antoine et al. 1974: 139].
2) =cʰul 'to be small, little' [Poser 1998/2013: 912, 1223, 1262]. Cf. the found examples: "This fishnet has a fine mesh" [Poser 1998/2013: 143], "He backed out with the crate because the doorway is too small" [Poser 1998/2013: 182], "His little toe hurts as a result of wearing shoes too small (n=cʰul)" [Poser 1998/2013: 210], "When he was small he got into everything", "I got a blister on my foot because my shoes were too small", "The child is dissatisfied because they gave him a small amount of money", "The shrew is much smaller than the mouse and has a narrower face" [Poser 1998/2013: 373], "When we were small mother packed us (on her back)" [Poser 1998/2013: 494], "When I was small, I remember grandmother telling stories" [Poser 1998/2013: 538].
Both are widely applicable, but browsing through the available data suggests that =tʼʌm can be more frequently used than =cʰul (Bill Poser, p.c., confirms it). Nevertheless, we treat both items as synonyms, since =tʼʌm appears to be a loan from the neighboring Babine language, being unknown to other Carrier varieties (Bill Poser, p.c.).
Distinct from the diminutive suffix -yaz ~ -ya [Poser 1998/2013: 549, 556]. Cf. some stems with it: tʌne-yaz 'boy (up to about 12 years of age)' (literally 'little man') [Poser 1998/2013: 142], cʼekʰe-yaz 'girl' (literally 'little woman') [Poser 1998/2013: 489], tʌtʼai-yaz 'little bird' [Poser 1998/2013: 148].
Koyukon:=kuc-ǝ9
Jetté & Jones 2000: 195, 1011; Jones 1978: 152. Verbal stem: 'to be small, little', widely applicable. Final -ǝ is the lexicalized negative suffix, emphasizing small dimensions, see [Jetté & Jones 2000: 5] and notes on 'not'. Used in the Central and Lower dialects. This verb is quoted in [Jones 1978: 152] as the only expression for 'small, little'.
Differently in the Upper dialect, where the verb =cʰǝƛ-ǝ 'to be small, little' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 636] is used instead.
Distinct from the noun-like adjective yoːz-ǝ ~ yoːs 'small / young' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 715], whose normal meaning is 'young' (applicable to humans and animals). Cf. substantivized yoːs 'fetus, childbirth; young animal or waterfowl' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 715].
Degexit'an:kʼǝʒ10
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1976: 30; Chapman 1914: 229. A noun-like adjective. Browsing through available sources suggests that this is the most common and widely applicable expression for 'small, little'.
The second candidate is =sƛʼ-ǝ 'to be small, few' [Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1976: 50], which is, however, more rarely used.
Sarsi:=cʰìƛʼ-á8
Li 1930b: 24; Cook 1984: 67; Hoijer 1956: 222. Verbal stem: 'to be small'. Also functions as the noun-like adjective cʰìƛʼ-á 'small' [Cook 1984: 67]. Final -a ~ -aa is the diminutive suffix [Li 1930b: 9]. Cf. some examples: "small cloud", "little chief", "small man" [Cook 1984: 67], "His beak is small" [Nanagusja 1996b: 147], etc.
A second candidate is =čʰìčʼ-āā 'to be small' [Li 1930b: 25; Nanagusja 1996a: 129], but without textual evidence.
NUMBER:77
WORD:small
Hupa:
Mattole:
Kato:
Taldash Galice:
Upper Inlet Tanaina:
Outer Inlet Tanaina:
Inland Tanaina:quya5
Wassillie 1979: 59; Holton et al. 2004: 11.
Iliamna Tanaina:
Central Ahtena:qaːy5
Kari 1990: 191, 591.
Lower Ahtena: qaːy [Kari 1990: 191, 591].
Western Ahtena: qaːy [Kari 1990: 191, 591].
Mentasta Ahtena:qaːy5
Kari 1990: 191, 591.
Dogrib:
North Slavey (Hare):
Tanacross:n=cʰûːŁ ~ n=cʰêŁ8
Arnold et al. 2009: 239; Holton 2000: 227, 294, 352; Shinen 1958: 20. In [Holton 2000: 227], transcribed as n=cʰùːl. Initial n= is the adjectival/gender exponent [Holton 2000: 237 ff.].
Kari 2007: 249, 358; Kari 1977: 132; Wassillie 1979: 91.
Iliamna Tanaina:ta=s=kǝt-i2
Kari 2007: 249, 358; Kari 1977: 132.
TFN_NOTES:
ta=s=kǝt-i is glossed as 'smoke, smudge' by Kari. This is a descriptive new formation, literally 'that which is smoking' [Kari 2007: 249], although the verb =kǝt ('to smoke'?) is not documented as a separate item.
The old term ɬǝt 'smoke' is retained in all the dialects, but since it is only quoted in [Kari 2007: 249], it is likely that ɬǝt is an obsolete word for 'smoke'. It is interesting that in [Kari 1977: 132], ɬǝt is quoted as the Upper Inlet and Inland word for 'soot', but this is not confirmed in [Kari 2007: 249], where quite different Tanaina expressions are proposed for the meaning 'soot'.
Distinct from šǝɬ (all the dialects; in Outer Inlet čʰǝɬ as a doublet) 'light smoke, vapor' [Kari 2007: 249].
Central Ahtena:ɬet1
Kari 1990: 278, 591; Kari & Buck 1975: 98; Smelcer 2010: 67.
Western Ahtena: ɬet [Kari 1990: 278, 591; Kari & Buck 1975: 98; Smelcer 2010: 67].
Mentasta Ahtena:ɬet1
Kari 1990: 278, 591; Kari & Buck 1975: 98; Smelcer 2010: 67.
AHT_NOTES:
Cf. the cognate verbs: =t=let 'to smudge, burn (of smoky fire), smolder; burn down to ashes' (all dialects) and Mentasta obj=let 'to singe obj lightly' [Kari 1990: 278].
Dogrib:ɬó1
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 70, 211.
North Slavey (Hare):lè1
Rice 1978: 72, 171; Hoijer 1956: 222. The possessive form is possr=lér-éʔ.
Tanacross:ɬèt1
Arnold et al. 2009: 240; Holton 2000: 347; Brean & Milanowski 1979: 12; McRoy 1973: 7; Shinen 1958: 13. Also functions as a verb: =h=ɬèt 'to smoke' as in "he is smoking a skin (part of tanning process)" [Arnold et al. 2009: 240].
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):ɬat1
Milanowski 2009: 20, 83.
Northway: ɬat 'smoke' [Milanowski 2007: 16].
Scottie Creek: ɬɤt 'smoke' [John 1997: 34].
Lower Tanana (Minto):ɬǝt1
Kari 1994: 180, 477; Tuttle 2009: 185. Quoted as lǝt by Kari. Polysemy: 'smoke / cigarette'.
Central Carrier:ɬʌt1
Poser 1998/2013: 283, 913; Poser 2011a: 192; Antoine et al. 1974: 146, 330.
Koyukon:ɬǝt1
Jetté & Jones 2000: 396, 1011; Jones 1978: 153. Cf. the cognate verb =ɬǝt 'to become singed' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 396].
Sapir & Golla 2001: 806; Golla 1996: 90; Golla 1970: 189. Originates from =yeːn-i. Used with animated sg. subj. For animated pl. subj. the root =yaː is used instead [Sapir & Golla 2001: 804; Golla 1996: 90].
Distinct from =noː 'to stand (in vertical projections)' (said of things) [Sapir & Golla 2001: 779; Golla 1996: 90].
Mattole:=yiːn1
Li 1930: 79. Originates from *=yin-i (heavy stem). Distinct from =kʼai, which is glossed as 'to stand' in [Li 1930: 106], although all the examples point to the active meaning 'to stand up'; distinct from =tʰaːɬ [imperf.] / =tʰaːʔl (< *=tʰaːl-ʔ-i) [perf.] with polysemy: 'to move one's foot / to stand up / to kick' [Li 1930: 57, 89].
Bear River dialect: not attested. Cf. =kʼai 'to stand up' [Goddard 1929: 321].
Kato:=yiŋ1
Goddard 1912: 61. Polysemy: 'to stand / to live in a place'. No specific expressions for 'to stand up' (animated subj.) are attested.
Taldash Galice:=keʔ2
Hoijer 1973: 67; Hoijer 1956: 223. A neuter intransitive verb. In [Hoijer 1956], quoted as =kiʔ, the default verb for 'to stand'. In [Hoijer 1973], glossed as 'to stand up straight, have an erect posture'.
Distinct from the active intransitive =tʰaɬ [imperf.] / =tʰaʔ [perf.], glossed as 'to arise, stand (up); step (down)' in [Hoijer 1973: 65]; perhaps this active verb means rather 'to stand up' than 'to stand'.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:
Not attested.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:=san1
Boraas 2010: 21. Attested examples: "Pete is standing beside Albert" [Boraas 2010: 21], "stand straight up" [Boraas 2010: 48], "his friend is standing out in the open" [Boraas 2010: 48].
Inland Tanaina:=san1
Wassillie 1979: 95. Apparently applied to animated subject only. Attested examples: "You stand right here", "The moose is standing in the water" [Wassillie 1979: 95], "Pete is standing beside Albert" [Tenenbaum 1978: 222], "he perceived a standing person" [Tenenbaum 1976 1: 30].
Distinct from =l=čʰit / =l=čʰǝt 'to stand up' [Wassillie 1979: 95].
Iliamna Tanaina:
Not attested.
Central Ahtena:=t=zen1
Kari 1990: 172, 598.
Lower Ahtena: =t=zen [Kari 1990: 172, 598].
Western Ahtena: =t=zen [Kari 1990: 172, 598].
Mentasta Ahtena:=t=zen1
Kari 1990: 172, 598.
AHT_NOTES:
Used with sg. animate subj. Paradigm: =t=zen [imperf.] / =t=ziːn-ʔ [perf.]; synchronically contracting into =cen / =ciːn-ʔ.
Distinct from pl. =l=yaː 'to stand', used with pl. animate subj. [Kari 1990: 268] (all dialects) < the classificatory verb =laː / =l=yaː 'to handle plural objects' [Kari 1990: 264].
Dogrib:nà=...=wó3
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 79, 214. Used with sg. & dual. subj. (only inanimate?). Polysemy: 'to stand / to live / to stay'. Initial nà= is an adverbial prefix [Marinakis et al. 2007: 102] (perhaps the same adverbial prefix as ná= 'again, repeatedly' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 72; Marinakis et al. 2007: 103]).
Distinct from nà=...=žá 'to stand', used with pl. subj. (both inanimate and animate) [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 77].
North Slavey (Hare):=wè3
Rice 1978: 317, 475, 538. Used with sg. & dual. animate subj.
With pl. subj., the verb =l=yà shows polysemy: 'to sleep / to stand' [Rice 1978: 311, 481, 538].
Tanacross:ná=...=θ̬èt3
Arnold et al. 2009: 251; Holton 2000: 160, 352. Used with sg. subj. Initial ná= is a "thematic" prefix.
Distinct from ná=...=téːx 'to stand' [Arnold et al. 2009: 251; Holton 2000: 160, 352], used with pl. subj.
Distinct from the specific verbs for 'to stand up': sg. subj. =t=š̬àh, pl. subj. =t=tèːƛ [Arnold et al. 2009: 251-252].
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):ndaː=...=θat3
Milanowski 2009: 55, 107.
Lower Tanana (Minto):n=...=ðǝt3
Kari 1994: 90, 484; Tuttle 2009: 194. Initial n= is a "thematic" prefix. Polysemy: 'to stand / to stand up'. Applicable to sg. & dual. subj.
Distinct from n=...=tax 'to stand / to stand up' [Kari 1994: 61, 484; Tuttle 2009: 194] used with pl. subj. < classificatory verb =tax 'pl. experience event involving abstract process (time, environment, emotion)' [Kari 1994: 60].
Central Carrier:=yin1
Poser 1998/2013: 928, 1224, 1264; Poser 2011a: 199; Antoine et al. 1974: 331. Polysemy: 'to stand / to stand up'.
Koyukon:=haː-n̥1
Jetté & Jones 2000: 279, 1021; Jones 1978: 160; Jones & Kwaraceius 1997: 44. Paradigm: =haː-n̥ [imperf.] / =haː-ʔ [perf.]. Polysemy: 'to stand / to stand up'. Applicable to sg. & dual. subj.
Distinct from =l=yoː 'to stand / to stand up' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 408, 1021; Jones 1978: 160; Jones & Kwaraceius 1997: 93] used with pl. subj.
Degexit'an:ntǝ=...=ðǝt3
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1976: 13; Chapman 1914: 219. Polysemy: 'to stand / to stand up'. Used with sg. subj. Cf. some examples: "He's standing on the bank", "Who's standing by the doorway?", "A moose is standing on the trail", "A person is standing over there" [Taff et al. 2007].
Distinct from =lǝ=yoː 'to stand / to stand up' [Taff et al. 2007; Chapman 1914: 213] used with pl. subj. as in: "there they were, standing in the water, throwing out fish" [Chapman 1914: 188], "Everyone stand up" [Taff et al. 2007].
Sarsi:nà=...=zít-3
Cook 1984: 214; Hoijer 1956: 223. Missing from [Li 1930b]. Paradigm: =zíʔ ~ =zít- [imperf.] / =zīʔ ~ =zīt- [perf.]. Used with sg. subj.
Distinct from =V=ɣá 'to stand / to camp' [Li 1930b: 17], used with pl. subj.
Goddard 1912: 32, 122; Curtis 1924: 205. An unanalyzable formation. It is well attested in texts from [Goddard 1909], although in all known contexts, it is the plural meaning 'stars' that is implied for koːyaniːʔ ~ koːyaneʔ. In [Curtis 1924: 205], however, the form is quoted for sg. 'star'.
The old word for 'star' is probably retained as sǝn in the untranslatable collocation sǝn ɬanc ~ sǝn ɬans - name of a specific star or constellation [Goddard 1912: 31; Goddard 1909: 101 No. 13].
Taldash Galice:sanʔ1
Hoijer 1973: 58. In [Hoijer 1956: 223], inaccurately quoted as ya=san.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:sin ~ sǝn ~ sǝm1
Kari 2007: 150, 358; Kari 1977: 136.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:sin ~ sǝm1
Kari 2007: 150, 358; Kari 1977: 136.
Inland Tanaina:sin ~ sǝm ~ sim1
Kari 2007: 150, 358; Kari 1977: 136; Wassillie 1979: 95.
Iliamna Tanaina:sin ~ sǝm1
Kari 2007: 150, 358; Kari 1977: 136.
TFN_NOTES:
The modern fluctuation -n ~ -m goes back to *-nʔ. In [Osgood 1937: 217], the archaic form sinʔ 'star' is quoted for Tanaina dialects (including Seldovia).
Central Ahtena:sõʔ1
Kari 1990: 464, 598; Kari & Buck 1975: 88; Smelcer 2010: 126.
Arnold et al. 2009: 252; Holton 2000: 347; Brean & Milanowski 1979: 12; McRoy 1973: 6; Shinen 1958: 14. It should be noted that the etymologically expected Tanacross form should be **θ̬énʔ; initial s- can be influenced on the part of Ahtena sonʔ ~ sõʔ 'star' (cf. [Holton 2000: 143] for lexical borrowing from Ahtena into Tanacross).
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):sanʔ1
Milanowski 2009: 22, 79.
Northway: sanʔ 'star' [Milanowski 2007: 17].
Scottie Creek: sònʔ 'star' [John 1997: 66].
Lower Tanana (Minto):sǝnʔ1
Kari 1994: 346, 484; Tuttle 2009: 195.
Central Carrier:s̪um1
Poser 1998/2013: 443, 928; Poser 2011a: 200; Antoine et al. 1974: 209, 331.
Bear River dialect: se 'stone' [Goddard 1929: 321].
Kato:se1
Goddard 1912: 20.
Taldash Galice:seː1
Hoijer 1973: 58; Hoijer 1956: 223; Landar 1977: 295. In [Hoijer 1956], quoted as sei.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:qʰa=ɬ=nik-i2
Kari 2007: 144, 359; Kari 1977: 123.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:qʰa=ɬ=nik-i2
Kari 2007: 144, 359; Kari 1977: 123.
Inland Tanaina:qʰa=ɬ=nik-i2
Kari 2007: 144, 359; Kari 1977: 123; Wassillie 1979: 82.
Iliamna Tanaina:qʰa=ɬ=nik-i ~ qʰa=n=ɬ=nik-i2
Kari 2007: 144, 359; Kari 1977: 123.
TFN_NOTES:
qʰa=ɬ=nik-i is a descriptive verbal form which means 'stone of medium size' (glossed as 'rock, stone (smaller, moveable, useable)' in [Kari 2007: 144]). However, the meaning of the presumed verb =nik is unknown (it can hardly be the same as =nik 'to go by boat' [Lovick 2005: 17 f.]).
Distinct from the old terms which synchronically mean 'large stone', glossed as 'rock, boulder (stationary)' in [Kari 2007: 144]: cʰa (all the dialects) and additionally Upper Inlet cʼǝs with the same meaning. It should be noted that the original meaning of cʼǝs could be something like 'small stone, pebble', since it is used in the Common Tanaina expression for 'seed' q.v.
Central Ahtena:cʼes3
Kari 1990: 410, 600; Kari & Buck 1975: 81; Smelcer 2010: 98.
Western Ahtena: cʼes [Kari 1990: 410, 600; Kari & Buck 1975: 81; Smelcer 2010: 98].
Mentasta Ahtena:cʼes3
Kari 1990: 410, 600; Kari & Buck 1975: 81; Smelcer 2010: 98.
AHT_NOTES:
In [Kari 1990: 410], glossed as 'rock, stone'; in [Kari & Buck 1975: 81; Smelcer 2010: 98], as 'rock'. The original meaning of cʼes could be something like 'small stone, pebble', since it is used in the Common Ahtena expression for 'seed' q.v.
Distinct from the old generic root cʰeː 'stone', which, in syncronic usage, is mainly restricted to compounds (all dialects) [Kari 1990: 373].
Dogrib:kʰʷé1
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 64, 216.
North Slavey (Hare):fè1
Rice 1978: 53, 174; Hoijer 1956: 222. Hoijer quotes the 19th c. archaic variant {kfwɛ}. Cf. the example: "he hit the bird with a stone" [Rice 1989: 302].
Tanacross:tθʰèː1
Arnold et al. 2009: 217, 255; Holton 2000: 346; Brean & Milanowski 1979: 12; Shinen 1958: 14.
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):tθʰeː1
Milanowski 2009: 25, 82.
Northway: tθʰeː 'stone' [Milanowski 2007: 17].
Scottie Creek: tθʰeː 'stone' [John 1997: 48].
Lower Tanana (Minto):tθʰa-kʼʊnaʔ ~ tθʰa1
Kari 1994: 170, 306, 486; Tuttle 2009: 196. The collocation tθʰa-kʼʊnaʔ literally means 'burnt stone' (the verb =kʼʌn̥ 'to burn' q.v., participle kʼʊn-aʔ). It is proposed by Kari as the generic term for an average-size stone, cf. Kari's gloss: 'rock, stone (generic / that can be handled), steambath rock, cooking rock' with further explanation: "the importance of rocks as cooking stones is reflected in this compound".
Simple tθʰa is quoted in [Tuttle 2009: 196] as the only translation of English 'stone' (with the significant example "He threw a stone"), but glossed in [Kari 1994: 306] as 'rock, stone (larger)' (further with additional polysemy 'large stone / mountain'; however, this is not a basic word for 'mountain').
Distinct from two rare terms, glossed simply as 'stone' without specifications and examples: ðǝ=ʔo-n-i [Kari 1994: 19], baʂ [Kari 1994: 34].
Central Carrier:c̪ʰe1
Poser 1998/2013: 503, 875; Poser 2011a: 202; Antoine et al. 1974: 233, 326. A generic term for stones, cf. the examples: "Long ago they made arrowheads out of rocks" [Poser 1998/2013: 503], "The beaver makes his house of stones, sticks and mud" [Antoine et al. 1974: 27], "A kidney stone became lodged in the urinary tract" [Antoine et al. 1974: 35], "Old fashioned moosehide scrapers were made of stone" [Antoine et al. 1974: 59], "The (round) stone is large' [Poser 1998/2013: 357].
Koyukon:lǝ=ʔoː-n-ǝ4
Jetté & Jones 2000: 43, 1023; Jones 1978: 162. Generic term with polysemy: 'stone / boulder / tempered steel'. Literally 'compact object that is in position' < the generic classificatory verb =ʔoː '(compact) object is in position' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 40].
Distinct from the old term ƛʰaː 'boulder / rocky cliff, bluff' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 561]. As explained by Jetté, ƛʰaː "contrasts with lǝʔoːnǝ which designates smaller rocks that can be handled".
Degexit'an:noː=qʰoːq-ǝy5
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 43; Chapman 1914: 215. Looks like a nominalized deverbal form, although details are unclear. This is the main word for 'stone' in the Yukon dialect according to [Kari 1978] and Chapman's data, cf. the attested examples: "She went up over a place where there were flat stones; and she thought, 'I will put these stones at the sides of my chest, and on my breast and forehead'" [Chapman 1914: 130], "they [two boys] went into the house and ate it. Then one of them got under a stone, and the other got under a pillow, and there they stayed" [Chapman 1914: 197].
In [Taff et al. 2007], Yukon noː=qʰoːq-ǝy is quoted in the meaning 'gravel', but in one of the textual examples it is translated as 'rocks': "Lots of gravel is piled here and there", "I threw rocks in the water".
The second candidate is noː=qʰoːy, also an unclear deverbative. It is quoted in the generic meaning 'rock, stone' in [Taff et al. 2007], but in both examples it occurs only within the collocation noː=qʰoːy čʰʊχ 'big stone': "There are lots of big rocks", "A big rock was put in the road". This can imply that noː=qʰoːy has a more specific meaning than simply 'stone'. It must be noted that noː=qʰoːy is quoted in [Kari 1978: 43] as a Kuskokwim dialectal term for 'stone', which semantically corresponds to noː=qʰoːq-ǝy 'stone' in the Yukon dialect.
Both noː=qʰoːq-ǝy and noː=qʰoːy are also used in the expressions for 'stone axe': Yukon dialect noːqʰoːqǝytθʰǝŋǝɬ, Kuskokwim dialect noː=qʰoːytθʰǝŋǝɬ [Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 67].
Distinct from the old term tθʰaː 'boulder' [Kari 1978: 43].
Sapir & Golla 2001: 796; Golla 1996: 92; Hoijer 1956: 223. The word ʍaː demonstrates the standard areal polysemy: 'sun / moon', although there also exist specialized expressions for this celestial body: čiŋkʰʸoːwit-ʍa, literally 'daytime' + 'sun', čiŋkʰʸoːwit-qaːl, literally 'daylight' + 'comes along', teːti-qaːl, literally 'here' + 'it comes along' [Golla 1996: 92] (these forms are not yet attested in [Sapir & Golla 2001]). For a similar specialized expression for 'moon' ('night ʍaː') see under the latter.
Mattole:xaː1
Li 1930: 126, 148 sub No. 75. Polysemy: 'sun / moon / month / light of sun or moon'. The more specific collocation čiŋ-xˈa-ʔ 'sun' (the first element čiŋ means 'day' [Li 1930: 131]) is also used, see notes on 'moon'.
Bear River dialect: naɣai ~ nakai with the strange polysemy: 'sun / rainbow' [Goddard 1929: 306, 321]; apparently, an inaccurate gloss.
Kato:ša1
Goddard 1912: 20; Curtis 1924: 205. Polysemy: 'sun / moon', although this is currently not the default term for 'moon'.
The underlying verbal form is *nu=ʔu-yi with various contractions in the dialects, literally 'a compact object that moves across': the classificatory verb =ʔu 'to handle a single compact object' [Tenenbaum 1978: 132, 135; Holton et al. 2004: 40; Boraas 2010: 65, 118] with the relative nominalizer -(ʔ)i / -(y)i [Kari 2007: 329; Boraas 2010: 17, 144]. Initial nu= is the directional prefix 'around, here and there; across; down, towards the ground' [Tenenbaum 1978: 183; Boraas 2010: 129]. For similar contractions of nominalized *=ʔu-i see notes on Upper Inlet Tanaina 'head'.
The old term šu (Upper Inlet su) 'sun' is retained in the expression for 'caribou in warm weather, summer caribou': nu=šu=yu=ɬ=tʰaɬ-i, lit. 'one that sun moves about' (all dialects) and additionally Inland šu tʼi=ɬ=ʔin, lit. 'one that gets sun' [Kari 2007: 4].
Central Ahtena:na=ʔaː-y2
Kari 1990: 73, 603; Kari & Buck 1975: 87; Smelcer 2010: 126.
Western Ahtena: na=ʔaː-y [Kari 1990: 73, 603; Kari & Buck 1975: 87; Smelcer 2010: 126].
Mentasta Ahtena:saː1
Kari 1990: 448, 603; Kari & Buck 1975: 87; Smelcer 2010: 126. Polysemy: 'sun / month'.
AHT_NOTES:
The stem *saː can be reconstructed as the Proto-Ahtena term with polysemy: 'sun / moon / month'. The non-Mentasta na=ʔaː-y is a new Tanaina-influenced formation, literally 'a compact object that moves across'; na=ʔaː-y can sometimes acquire the polysemy: 'sun / moon / month' - in such cases the full collocation ceːn na=ʔaː-y-eʔ 'sun', lit. 'day's naʔaːy', can be used. See notes on 'moon' for details.
Three sá-based terms for 'sun' are quoted in [Saxon & Siemens 1996], out of which the simple sá 'sun / moon / month' and the compound sá-tèː 'sun' are quoted in [Siemens et al. 2007], so sá and sá-tèː should be the default expressions for 'sun' in Dogrib. sá-tèː literally means 'great sá' with -tèː 'great, big, important, good' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 14].
The third term is cẽ́-kó-sàː 'sun' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 22], literally 'sá of the day (cẽ́)' with the unclear element kó. It must be noted that this compound is recent, since the intervocalic -s- has not voiced into -z-.
North Slavey (Hare):sà1
Rice 1978: 88, 175; Hoijer 1956: 222. Polysemy: 'sun / month'. In [Hoijer 1956: 222], sà is quoted with archaic polysemy: 'sun / moon'.
Another expression for 'sun' is cìnè=tìh=sà [Rice 1978: 52] with cìnè 'day', sà 'sun' and perhaps tih 'here' [Rice 1989: 321]. Cf. the mirroring expression tʰèwè=tìh=sà 'moon' with tʰèwè 'night'.
Tanacross:sàː1
Arnold et al. 2009: 176, 258; Holton 2000: 347; Brean & Milanowski 1979: 13; McRoy 1973: 6; Shinen 1958: 18. Polysemy: 'sun / month'. In [Shinen 1958: 18], the pleonastic collocation cèːn sàː 'sun', literally 'sàː of day', is also quoted. The polysemy 'sun / month' indicates that sàː was the Proto-Tanacross term for 'sun / moon / month' (the modern expression for 'moon' q.v. is based on the verb 'to light').
In the Chena dialect, so with polysemy: 'sun / moon' [Kari 1994: 354].
Central Carrier:sa1
Poser 1998/2013: 420, 939; Poser 2011a: 206; Antoine et al. 1974: 198, 332. Polysemy: 'sun / moon / generally any heavenly body other than a star'.
Koyukon:soː1
Jetté & Jones 2000: 739, 1028; Jones 1978: 165. Polysemy: 'sun / month'. According to [Jones 1978], this is still the most common expression for 'sun' (cf. the quoted example: "She's looking at the sun"). In the Lower dialect, the extended collocation caːn zoː-ʔo 'sun', literally 'day's sun' is also used [Jetté & Jones 2000: 739].
There also exist several descriptive expressions for 'sun' based on the generic classificatory verb =ʔoː 'compact object is in position': ʁǝ=ʔoː-l-ǝ ~ ʁǝ=ʔoː-l-iː 'sun', literally 'compact object that moves along' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 53; Jones 1978: 165], χ=ǝ=t=iː=ʔoː-n-ǝ 'sun', literally 'compact object is in the area' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 49], Lower dialect noː=ʔoː-y with polysemy: 'sun / moon', literally 'compact object that repetitively moves' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 53; Jones 1978: 165].
Degexit'an:noː=ʔoː-y2
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 45; Chapman 1914: 213. Literally 'compact object that repetitively moves' with the generic classificatory verb =ʔoː-y̥ [imperf.] / =ʔoː-n̥ [perf.] 'to handle compact object' [Kari 1976: 4]. Cf. the examples for noː=ʔoː-y 'sun': "At that time darkness was over all the earth; there was no sun (noː=ʔoː-y) or moon (toː-ɬ-tʼoː-l) there" [Chapman 1914: 106], "Dusk or darkness, no sun (noː=ʔoː-y) no moon (toː-ɬ-tʼoː-l), only darkness, yet he travelled" [Chapman 1914: 111], "Early in the morning the sun is red" [Taff et al. 2007].
According to [Kari 1978: 45], noː=ʔoː-y means both 'sun' and 'moon', but this is not confirmed by other sources. The original polysemy 'sun / moon / month' for noː=ʔoː-y is possibly revealed by noːʔoː ~ noːʔ 'month' [Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 49], if these forms represent contraction of noː=ʔoː-y.
Sarsi:čʼɒ̀ː=tʼɒ́ɣ-ɒ́3
Hoijer & Joël 1963: 72; Hoijer 1956: 223. Unclear; can literally mean 'tʼɒɣ of čʼɒ' (cf. possr=tʼáɣ-ɒ̀ʔ ~ possr=tʼɒɣ-a 'feather'?).
NUMBER:83
WORD:swim
Hupa:=meː1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 770; Golla 1996: 93; Golla 1977: 357. Polysemy: 'to swim / to bathe'. Applied at least to human beings. According to [Golla 1977: 357], the paradigm is: directional imperfective/perfective =mi-ʍ (< *=meː-ʍ) / =meː-n (< *=meː-n-i), nondirectional imperfective/perfective =meː / =me-ʔ (< *=meː-ʔ). Perhaps this is the same word as the classificatory verb =meː [imperf.] / =me-ʔ [perf.] 'to gather small objects (berries, etc.)' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 770].
Mattole:=peː1
Li 1930: 82. Paradigm: =peː [imperf.] / =pe-ʔ [perf.]. Polysemy: 'to swim / to take a bath'.
Goddard 1912: 68. Paradigm: =pe [nondirectional imperf.] / =piː-š [directional imperf.] / =piː-n [nondirectional perf.]. Used with both sg. and pl. subj.
Distinct from the more specific verb =leh / =leɣ 'to swim under water' [Goddard 1912: 63] and from =kʰeʔ 'to bath (pl. subj.)' [Goddard 1912: 78].
Distinct from =li 'to swim', applied to a fish [Landar 1977: 295].
Upper Inlet Tanaina:
Not attested.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:=pa1
Boraas 2010: 94. Cf. the example: "he is swimming naked" [Boraas 2010: 46].
Distinct from =laʁ 'to swim', applied to fish, cf. the examples "A fish swam in to me" [Boraas 2010: 25] and "he swam around outside of him" [Boraas 2010: 26] (in the later case, the Raven, which has tuned into a fish, is mentioned).
Inland Tanaina:=cʰi=l=kʰǝɬ3
Wassillie 1979: 99. Applied to a human. The first element cʰi is the incorporated morpheme 'head'.
Distinct from the verb =laʁ, which seems to only be applied to fishes and (mythological) animals: nikʼu=n=š=laʁ 'I swam' [Tenenbaum 1978: 182] with the directional adverbial prefixes nikʼu 'out in a horizontal direction'; niqʰa=n=a=ʔi=ƛaʁ (< *=t=laʁ) 'he swam back to shore' [Tenenbaum 1978: 182] with the directional adverbial prefixes niqʰa 'to the beach or to higher ground from the water'; tʰa=n=š=laʁ 'I swam underwater' [Tenenbaum 1978: 185] with the directional adverbial prefixes tʰa 'submerged in water'; čʼa=n=i=laʁ 'he swam (around outside of him)' [Tenenbaum 1978: 206].
Distinct from =l=kʰit 'to swim across' [Lovick 2005: 19, 61 ex. 2.30a; Tenenbaum 1976 1: 59, 60] - a causative from the classificatory verb =ɬ=kʰit 'to handle a mushy or sticky object' [Tenenbaum 1978: 140].
Iliamna Tanaina:
Not attested.
TFN_NOTES:
The verb 'to swim (subj. = human)' is poorly documented. The old root =pa is attested as a full-fledged verb in Outer Inlet and in the abstract noun 'swimming': Upper Inlet nu=cʼu=pa-ɬ-i, Outer Inlet nu=čʼu=pa-ɬ-i (with the future-optative suffix -ɬ and the relative nominalizer -i).
Central Ahtena:=peː-s1
Kari 1990: 101, 604.
Lower Ahtena: =peː-s [Kari 1990: 101, 604].
Western Ahtena: =peː-s [Kari 1990: 101, 604].
Mentasta Ahtena:=peː-s1
Kari 1990: 101, 604.
AHT_NOTES:
Paradigm: =peː-s [momentous imperf.] / =peː-n [momentous perf.] etc.; used with sg. subj., applicable to humans, mammals, birds. Glossed by Kari as 'to swim on surface'.
Distinct from =l=ʔeːɬ [imperf.] / =l=ʔeːƛʼ [perf.] 'to swim', pl. subj. (all dialects) [Kari 1990: 88, 604]; Kari explains this as "usually used for animals, birds", but apparently also for humans as well.
Distinct from =leːχ 'to swim' (all dialects; Mentasta: =leːq), applicable to fish(es) [Kari 1990: 274, 604].
Dogrib:=mpé1
Saxon & Siemens 1996: ix, 60, 217. Innovative pronunciation: =pé. Used with sg. & dual. subj.; applicable to humans, animals and inanimate subj.
Distinct from =ʔé / =ʔò 'to swim', pl. subj. [Saxon & Siemens 1996: ix, 60, 217].
Distinct from =ʔiè 'to swim', pl. subj. [Rice 1978: 302, 406, 541].
Tanacross:=mèːɬ1
Arnold et al. 2009: 260; Holton 2000: 352. This is the imperfective root variant. As proposed in [Holton 2000: 352], =mèːɬ is to be historically analyzed as a suffixal formation: =mèː-ɬ, although -ɬ is the normal exponent of the future form [Holton 2000: 269].
In [Shinen 1958: 59], the full paradigm is quoted as =beɬ [imperf.] / =meh [perf.] 'to swim', where =beɬ is a phonetic variant of =mèːɬ.
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):=mbeː-ɬ1
Milanowski 2009: 39, 58, 107. Glossed simply as 'to swim' in [Milanowski 2009], specified as 'human or animal movement through water without significant splashing' (Milanowski, p.c.). Final -ɬ is a rare suffix (synchronously -ɬ is the future exponent) which can be singled out by comparison with the cognate verb =t=mbeː-k 'to swim across' [Milanowski 2009: 39, 107] ("A person swims across"), where -k is formally the exponent of customary aspect.
Distinct from the more marked verb =h=tʼan̥ 'to swim' [Milanowski 2009: 58, 107], specified as 'human or animal movement through water with significant splashing' (Milanowski, p.c.). Cf. the available example: "He is swimming in the creek" [Milanowski 2009: 58].
Lower Tanana (Minto):=ba-y̥1
Kari 1994: 31, 491; Tuttle 2009: 199. Paradigm: =ba-y̥ [imperf.] / =ba-n̥ [perf.] / =ba-ɬ [future] / =bi-y̥ [customary]. Glossed as 'to swim on surface'. Applicable to humans and animals incl. fish. According to [Kari 1994: 31], used with sg. subj. only, although already in [Tuttle 2009: 199] the full sg.-pl. paradigm is offered.
Distinct from =l=ʔal [imperf.] / =l=ʔaƛ [perf.] / =l=ʔʊl [fut.] / =l=ʔʊ-k [customary imperf.] / =l=ʔʊl [progressive imperf.] 'to swim', used with pl. subj. [Kari 1994: 13, 491].
Central Carrier:=pe1
Poser 1998/2013: 944, 1218, 1249; Poser 2011a: 208; Antoine et al. 1974: 333. Paradigm: =pe [imperf.] / =pi [perf.] / =pe-ɬ ~ =pi-ɬ [progressive imperf.]. Used with sg. & dual. subj. Cf. the example: "He is strong because he is always swimming" [Antoine et al. 1974: 180].
Distinct from =l=ʔeɬ ~ =l=ʔiɬ [imperf.] / =l=ʔel ~ =l=ʔil [perf.] 'to swim', used with pl. subj. [Poser 1998/2013: 944, 1218, 1248].
Koyukon:=paː-y̥1
Jetté & Jones 2000: 74, 1030; Jones 1978: 167; Jones & Kwaraceius 1997: 109. Paradigm: =paː-y̥ [imperf.] / =paː-n̥ [perf.]. Used with sg. & dual. subj.
Distinct from =l=ʔaːɬ [imperf.] / =l=ʔaːƛ [perf.] 'to swim', used with pl. subj. [Jetté & Jones 2000: 27, 1030; Jones 1978: 167].
A second, apparently more rare expression for 'to swim (pl. subj.)' is the general verb of motion =taːɬ [imperf.] =taːƛ [perf.] / =tǝɬ ~ =tǝɬ-ƛ [fut.] with polysemy: 'to go / to come / to swim' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 116].
Degexit'an:=vaː-y̥1
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1976: 8; Chapman 1914: 218. Paradigm: =vaː-y̥ [momentaneous imperf.] / =vaː-n̥ [momentaneous perf.] / =vaː-ɬ [progressive imperf.] / =vaː-ʔ [progressive perf.]. According to [Kari 1976], used with sg. subj., but in [Taff et al. 2007] there is also an example with pl. subj.: "Water beetles are swimming all around".
Distinct from =ʔaːɬ [imperf.] / =ʔaːƛ [perf.] 'to swim', used with pl. subj. [Kari 1976: 6]. Not found in [Taff et al. 2007], where it is apparently supplanted with singulative =vaː-.
Distinct from =laːχ 'to swim', applicable to fish(es) [Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1976: 34; Chapman 1914: 201].
Sarsi:=mɒ́h1
Li 1930b: 17; Hoijer 1956: 223; Cook 1984: 248. Ablaut paradigm: =mɒ́h [imperf.] / =míː ~ =míy- [perf.]. Cf. the available examples: "Can he swim?" [Cook 1984: 36], "I might swim" [Cook 1984: 37], "He has been swimming. He is one of us" [Goddard 1915: 267].
Distinct from =ʔūɬ [imperf.] / =ʔúːl [perf.] glossed as 'to bathe, swim' [Li 1930b: 16]. It is possible that =mɒ́h is applied preferably to humans, whereas =ʔūɬ 'to swim' is applied to animals, cf. the mirroring forms: yí=mɒ́-ɬ-í 'the one (person) who is swimming' vs. yī=ʔùɬ-í 'the one (animal) that is swimming' [Cook 1984: 104].
Distinct from =V=káʔ ~ =V=kát- ~ =V=kūt [imperf.] / =V=kàʔ ~ =V=kàt- [perf.] 'to go, walk (sg./dual. animals) / to swim, dive' [Li 1930b: 20; Cook 1984: 56], without any semantic specifications concerning the meaning 'to swim'.
NUMBER:83
WORD:swim
Hupa:
Mattole:
Kato:
Taldash Galice:
Upper Inlet Tanaina:
Outer Inlet Tanaina:
Inland Tanaina:
Iliamna Tanaina:
Central Ahtena:
Mentasta Ahtena:tʰa=...=t=ɬ=tʼen4
Kari 1990: 348, 604. Initial tʰa- is the incorporated morpheme 'water' q.v. This is a specific Mentasta expression, applicable to humans (both sg. and pl. subj.). We treat it as a synonym of the main Ahtena verbs =peː-s and =l=ʔeːɬ.
Dogrib:
North Slavey (Hare):=mì1
Perfective.
Tanacross:=meh1
Shinen 1958: 59. Perfective stem.
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):
Lower Tanana (Minto):
Central Carrier:
Koyukon:
Degexit'an:
Sarsi:
NUMBER:84
WORD:tail
Hupa:possr=kʰʸeʔ1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 757; Golla 1996: 94; Golla 1964: 115. The synchronic root is kʰʸeʔ, not kʰʸe, cf. such compounds as kʰʸeʔ-neːs 'pine squirrel', literally 'long tail' or kʰʸeʔ-čʰʷil 'bobbed tail', literally 'tail-blunted' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 757; Golla 1996: 94].
Distinct from the separate term possr=kʰʸeːl-ʔ 'fish tail' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 758; Golla 1996: 94].
Mattole:possr=ɕʰiːʔ1
Li 1930: 132. Morphologically =ɕʰiːʔ or =ɕʰiː-ʔ.
Bear River dialect: not attested as a separate word. The old term is retained in the compound čʰiː-nes ~ či-nes 'panther', literally 'long (q.v.) tail' [Goddard 1929: 300, 311].
Kato:possr=čʰiːʔ1
Goddard 1912: 22. Applied to mammals, serpents and perhaps to fish (cf. [Goddard 1909: 138 No. 12]).
Distinct from possr=tʼaʔ 'tail' [Goddard 1909: 86 No. 4; Goddard 1912: 22], applied to sea lions.
Taldash Galice:possr=čʰi-ʔ1
Hoijer 1973: 60; Hoijer 1956: 223; Landar 1977: 295. Synchronically =čʰi-ʔ, if possr=čʰiːla-ʔ 'tip of the tail' [Hoijer 1973: 61] can be analyzed as a compound =čʰiː-la- with the unclear second morpheme.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:possr=kʰal-a2
Kari 2007: 15, 359; Kari 1977: 31. According to [Kari 2007], a generic term applied to mammals and apparently birds.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:possr=kʰa1
Kari 2007: 15, 359; Kari 1977: 31. According to [Kari 2007], a generic term applied to mammals and, apparently, birds.
The verbal incorporated element 'tail' is quoted in [Boraas 2010: 125] as kʰača- ~ kʰa- without semantic comments; see notes on Inland Tanaina.
Inland Tanaina:possr=kʰa-čat-a1
Kari 2007: 15, 359; Kari 1977: 31. According to [Kari 2007; Kari 1977], this word denotes a 'round tail (dog, moose)', i.e., an elongated terete tail.
Distinct from possr=kʰa 'flat tail (of muskrat, beaver, bird)' [Kari 2007: 15; Kari 1977: 31].
Differently in [Wassillie 1979: 99], where possr=kʰačata is applied to a beaver, whereas possr=kʰa is applied to birds.
The verbal incorporated element 'tail' is quoted in [Tenenbaum 1978: 164] as kʰača- ~ kʰa- without semantic comments. These are either two different morphemes with different meanings (kʰača- is an abbreviated form of possr=kʰačata; kʰa- goes back to possr=kʰa), or the second variant kʰa- may be an abbreviated form of kʰača- (< possr=kʰačata).
Iliamna Tanaina:possr=kʰa-čat-a1
Kari 2007: 15, 359; Kari 1977: 31. If the analysis of -a as the izafet exponent is correct, the Iliamna form is to be read possr=kʰa-čatʼ-a (< *...t-ʔa). According to [Kari 2007; Kari 1977], this denotes a 'round tail (dog, moose)', i.e., an elongated terete tail.
Distinct from possr=kʰa 'flat tail (of muskrat, beaver, bird)' [Kari 2007: 15; Kari 1977: 31].
TFN_NOTES:
It seems that =kʰa can be posited as the Proto-Tanaina term for 'tail (in general)'. Upper Inlet =kʰal- is an old word for 'fish tail'.
Inland & Iliamna =kʰačata is synchronically obscure, but some external evidence suggests that we are dealing with the compound =kʰa-čat-a of two nominal roots kʰa 'tail' and čat '?' (cf. the Common Tanaina anatomic term possr=čat-a 'shin' [Kari 2007: 94]).
Distinct from the specific expression for 'whale's tail, fish's tail': possr=kʰal-tʼa (all dialects) [Kari 2007: 15] - probably a contracted compound of kala ‘tail’ (see the Upper Inlet form) and tʰaʁʔi (Upper Inlet: tʰayʔi) ‘paddle, oar’ [Kari 2007: 246]; cf. the contracted Ahtena compound kʰʸel-tʼoʁ-eʔ ‘adipose fin’ [Kari 1990: 349] < =kʰʸela ‘fish tail’ + =tʼoʁ-eʔ ‘fin’.
Western Ahtena: possr=kʰʸe-ʔ [Kari 1990: 112, 605; Kari & Buck 1975: 9].
Mentasta Ahtena:possr=kʰʸe-ʔ1
Kari 1990: 112, 605; Kari & Buck 1975: 9.
AHT_NOTES:
Polysemy: 'tail / coccyx, tailbone'; applicable to mammals. Final -ʔ is the izafet exponent; cf. the variant kʰʸe- used as the second element of compounds [Kari 1990: 112].
Distinct from possr=kʰʸela-ʔ 'fish tail' (all dialects) [Kari 1990: 112].
Dogrib:possr=čʰè1
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 23, 218. Innovative pronunciation: possr=cʰè. Applicable at least to mammals and fishes.
North Slavey (Hare):possr=šé-ʔ1
Rice 1978: 92, 176; Hoijer 1956: 222. Hoijer quotes the 19th c. archaic variant =čʰe. Applicable to mammals.
Distinct from possr=ƛʼà with polysemy: 'bottom / tail (of fish)' [Rice 1978: 100, 138].
Tanacross:possr=čʰé-ʔ1
Arnold et al. 2009: 261; Holton 2000: 347; Brean & Milanowski 1979: 3; McRoy 1973: 2; Shinen 1958: 11.
Distinct from possr=čʰěːl-ʔ 'fish tail' [Arnold et al. 2009: 119; Holton 2000: 343].
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):possr=čʰe-ʔ1
Milanowski 2009: 12, 84. Synchronously =čʰe, not =čʰeʔ, cf. the compound čʰeː-tʼiːn 'man with a tail' [Milanowski 2009: 12].
For the optional proclitic hay=, which functions like a definite article in nominal phrases, see [Golla 1970: 268 f.].
Mattole:yiː ~ hai=yiː2
Li 1930: 133. According to [Li 1930: 133], the system of Mattole demonstrative pronouns is binary: tiː 'this, these' (also hai=tiː) / yiː 'that, those' (also hai=yiː). There is also a general demonstrative hai, glossed by Li as 'the, this, that' and specified as "practically an article".
Bear River dialect: not attested reliably.
Kato:hai=ye ~ hai=yiː2
Goddard 1912: 34. According to [Goddard 1912: 34], the system of Kato demonstrative pronouns is binary: tiː 'this' / hai=ye ~ hai=yiː 'that'. There is also a general demonstrative hiː, glossed by Goddard as 'the' and specified as "practically an article".
Taldash Galice:
Not attested.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:ʁi-n-i ~ ʁi-n3
Kari 2007: 65, 329; Kari 1977: 81.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:ʁi-n-i ~ ʁi-n3
Kari 2007: 65, 329; Kari 1977: 81; Boraas 2010: 37.
Inland Tanaina:ʁi-n-i ~ ʁi-n3
Kari 2007: 65, 329; Kari 1977: 81; Holton et al. 2004: 10.
Iliamna Tanaina:ʁi-n-i ~ ʁi-n3
Kari 2007: 65, 329; Kari 1977: 81.
TFN_NOTES:
According to [Kari 2007; Kari 1977] and other sources, the system of Tanaina demonstrative pronouns (both attributive and nominalized) is binary. These forms are common for all the dialects.
The suffixal status of -n in ki-n & ʁi-n follows from the cognate local adverbs ku 'here, nearby' and ʁu 'there, in the distance' [Boraas 2010: 37]. In turn, -ǝn is the human singulative exponent, *-na is the human plural exponent [Kari 2007: 329; Holton et al. 2004: 15; Boraas 2010: 17, 52].
If -i in the non-human variants kin-i and ʁin-i is the common relative nominalizer -(ʔ)i / -(y)i [Kari 2007: 329; Boraas 2010: 17, 144], it is possible that kin-i and ʁin-i were originally used in the non-attributive function.
Central Ahtena:ʁa-n-i3
Kari 1990: 208, 607.
Lower Ahtena: ʁa-n-i [Kari 1990: 208, 607].
Western Ahtena: ʁa-n-i [Kari 1990: 208, 607].
Mentasta Ahtena:ʁa-n-i3
Kari 1990: 208, 607.
AHT_NOTES:
It is likely that the system of Ahtena demonstrative pronouns (both attributive and nominalized) is binary. These forms are common for all the dialects.
The suffixal status of -n in kʸaː-n- & ʁa-n- is ascertained by the cognate local adverbs kʸaː 'here, this place' and ʁa 'there, at that place' [Kari 1990: 178, 208]. Subsequently, -i is the non-human nominalizer, -en is the human singulative nominalizer, -ne is the human plural nominalizer.
According to available sources, the system of Dogrib demonstrative pronouns (both attributive and nominalized) is binary: tíː(-ĩ́yĩ̀ː) 'this' / éyí 'that; there'.
North Slavey (Hare):ʔèyì ~ ʔèyè-rì2
Rice 1989: 255. Final -ri (< *-ti) is an enclitic element modifying demonstrative and some other pronouns, e.g., yè-rì 'what' q.v.
According to [Rice 1989: 255], the system of Hare demonstrative pronouns is binary: tè-rì 'this' / ʔèyì ~ ʔèyè-rì 'that'.
Tanacross:nâː ~ nâː-n4
Arnold et al. 2009: 266; Shinen 1958: 24.
Details are not documented, but according to [Holton 2000: 279], the basic opposition of Tanacross demonstrative pronouns (both attributive and nominalized) is binary: čâː ~ čâːn 'this (sg.)', ʔêy 'these (pl.)' / nâː ~ nâːn 'that (sg.); he, she, it', ʔèn̥ 'those (pl.)'.
It should be specially noted that in [Holton 2000: 279], forms for the proximal ('this, these') and distal ('that, those') pronouns are swapped; this looks like a typographic error.
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):ay2
Milanowski 2009: 12, 86. In [Milanowski 2009: 12, 18, 28, 86], the proximal demonstrative pronoun is given as ča-n ~ čah 'this', opposed to two distal demonstrative pronouns ay and xat which are quoted as synonyms with the gloss 'that / that one (demonstrative)'. As specified by Milanowski (p.c.), ay is most commonly used, whereas xat is generally used only when an alternate equivalent is needed within a context. Thus the Tetlin system is actually binary: ča-n ~ čah 'this' / ay 'that'.
The pronoun ay could be analyzed as a=y, see notes on Lower Tanana.
Lower Tanana (Minto):ǝ=yi2
Kari 1994: 324, 494.
Available sources show that the basic opposition of Lower Tanana attributive demonstrative pronouns is binary: čʌ ~ čʌn̥ 'this, these' / ǝyi 'that, those'.
The pronoun ǝyi with polysemy: 'that, those / it, they (3rd p. sg./pl. non-human)' is used both attributively and non-attributively, applied to things and animals. For humans, the extended stem ǝyǝ-n̥ 'he, she, him, her, 3rd p. sg. human' [Kari 1994: 324], apparently also used as attributive 'that', is used.
In the light of such pronouns as yǝ-t 'there, at that place' and yǝ-na 'they, them, 3rd p. pl. human' [Kari 1994: 324], it is possible to analyze ǝyi 'that' as ǝ=yi with ǝ= - a prefix of demonstratives, on which see further [Kari 1994: 14].
Central Carrier:n=yu-n2
Poser 1998/2013: 402; Poser 2011b: 38; Antoine et al. 1974: 352. Meaning 'that (near the addressee)'. Paradigm: nyu-n [humans & dogs, sg.] / nyu-n-ne [humans & dogs, pl.] / nyu [non-human, sg. & pl.].
As described in [Poser 2011b: 38] and slightly differently in [Antoine et al. 1974: 352], the system of Central Carrier attributive demonstrative pronouns is ternary: ntʌ-n 'this (near the speaker)' / nyu-n 'that (near the addressee)' / nɣʌn-ʌn ~ ŋʌn-ʌn 'that (far from the speaker & the addressee)'.
Initial n= is the common pronominal element, cf., e.g., n=tai 'what?, which?', n=tet 'when?'.
Koyukon:iːy2
Jetté & Jones 2000: 33, 806; Jones & Kwaraceius 1997: 15. Meaning 'that (near addressee)'. The variant found mainly in the Lower dialect is oːy.
According to [Jones & Kwaraceius 1997: 15; Jetté & Jones 2000: 806], the system of Central Koyukon attributive demonstrative pronouns is quaternary: koː 'this (near speaker)' / iːy ~ oːy 'that (near addressee); aforementioned (that one that we are talking about)' / noʁ 'that (far from speaker & addressee)' / yǝqǝ 'that (far away)'. The latter item yǝq-ǝ is apparently the same word as yǝq-ǝ 'down, downward, below' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 687]; final -ǝ is the lexicalized negative suffix, emphasizing small dimensions, see [Jetté & Jones 2000: 5] and notes on 'not'.
We treat iːy 'that (near addressee)' and noʁ 'that (far from speaker & addressee)' as synonyms for 'that'.
Degexit'an:
Not documented properly.
Sarsi:ìyí2
Cook 1984: 73.
According to Cook's analysis, the system of Sarsi attributive demonstrative pronouns is ternary: tì- 'this' / ìyí 'that (proximate)' / nùɣú 'that (distant)'. We treat ìyí and nùɣú as synonyms for 'that'.
Poser 1998/2013: 350, 352; Poser 2011b: 38; Antoine et al. 1974: 352. Meaning 'that (far from the speaker & the addressee)'. Paradigm: nɣʌn-ʌn ~ ŋʌn-ʌn [humans & dogs, sg.] / nɣʌn-ne ~ ŋʌn-ne [humans & dogs, pl.] / nɣʌn-i ~ ŋʌn-i [non-human, sg. & pl.].
Koyukon:noʁ4
Jetté & Jones 2000: 493, 806; Jones & Kwaraceius 1997: 15. Meaning 'that (far from speaker & addressee)'.
Degexit'an:
Sarsi:nùɣú4
Cook 1984: 73.
NUMBER:86
WORD:this
Hupa:teː ~ teː-t1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 747; Golla 1996: 96. (=)teː-t originates < *(=)teː-ti. The plain form teː with polysemy: 'this / here'. See notes on 'that'.
Mattole:tiː ~ hai=tiː1
Li 1930: 133. See notes on 'that'.
Bear River dialect: not attested reliably.
Kato:tiː1
Goddard 1912: 34. See notes on 'that'.
Taldash Galice:
Not attested.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:ki-n-i ~ ki-n2
Kari 2007: 65, 329; Kari 1977: 81.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:ki-n-i ~ ki-n2
Kari 2007: 65, 329; Kari 1977: 81; Boraas 2010: 37.
Inland Tanaina:ki-n-i ~ ki-n2
Kari 2007: 65, 329; Kari 1977: 81; Holton et al. 2004: 10.
Iliamna Tanaina:ki-n-i ~ ki-n2
Kari 2007: 65, 329; Kari 1977: 81.
TFN_NOTES:
See notes on 'that'.
Central Ahtena:kʸaː-n-i2
Kari 1990: 178, 608.
Lower Ahtena: kʸaː-n-i [Kari 1990: 178, 608].
Western Ahtena: kʸaː-n-i [Kari 1990: 178, 608].
Mentasta Ahtena:kʸaː-n-i2
Kari 1990: 178, 608.
AHT_NOTES:
See notes on 'that'.
Dogrib:tíː1
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 19, 221; Marinakis et al. 2007: 162. In [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 19, 221], the forms tíː-ĩ́yĩ̀ː and tíː-yĩ̀ː 'this' are also quoted. It is likely that simple tíː is used attributively (the example: "These houses are among the trees" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 19]), whereas tíː-ĩ́yĩ̀ː (contracted tíː-yĩ̀ː) is a nominalized contraction with ĩ́yĩ̀ː 'this one' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 54].
North Slavey (Hare):tè-rì1
Rice 1989: 255. See notes on 'that'.
Tanacross:čâː ~ čâː-n2
Arnold et al. 2009: 268. See notes on 'that'.
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):ča-n ~ čah2
Milanowski 2009: 18, 86. The variant čah is quoted with polysemy: 'this / here'.
Lower Tanana (Minto):čʌ ~ čʌn̥2
Kari 1994: 146, 495. Polysemy: 'this, these / here / now'. Used attributively; the nominalized forms are čʌn̥ 'this (person)' and čʌn-i 'this (thing)'. See notes on 'that'.
Central Carrier:n=tʌ-n1
Poser 1998/2013: 335; Poser 2011b: 38; Antoine et al. 1974: 352. Meaning 'this (near the speaker)'. Paradigm: ntʌ-n [humans & dogs, sg.] / ntʌ-n-ne [humans & dogs, pl.] / nti [non-human, sg. & pl.]. See notes on 'that'.
Koyukon:koː2
Jetté & Jones 2000: 192, 806; Jones & Kwaraceius 1997: 15. Meaning 'this (near speaker)'. See notes on 'that'.
Degexit'an:
Not documented properly.
Sarsi:tì-1
Cook 1984: 73. Paradigm: tì-ní [sg. human] / tì-ná [pl. human] / tì-yí [sg./pl. non-human]. Final -ní is the same morpheme as in the personal pronouns (sí-ní 'I' q.v. etc.); final -ná is the plural human suffix. Further see notes on 'that'.
Li 1930: 133. Regularly originates from *nin. The same morpheme in the prefixal possessive pronoun ni- 'thy' [Li 1930: 133], 2 sg. subject verbal prefix -n- [Li 1930: 68], 2 sg. object verbal prefix -ni- [Li 1930: 64].
Bear River dialect: naŋ 'thou' [Goddard 1929: 322].
Kato:niŋ1
Goddard 1912: 33. Regularly originates from *nin. The same morpheme is found in the prefixal possessive pronoun n̩- < *ni- 'thy' [Goddard 1912: 21].
Taldash Galice:nan1
Hoijer 1956: 223; Landar 1977: 296. The same morpheme in the prefixal possessive pronoun n- [before C or Ṽ] / t- [before V] < *ni- 'thy' [Hoijer 1966: 322], 2 sg. indirect & direct object verbal prefix n- [before C or Ṽ] / t- [before V] [Hoijer 1966: 323, 324].
Upper Inlet Tanaina:nǝn1
Kari 2007: 65; Kari 1977: 80.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:nǝn1
Kari 2007: 65; Kari 1977: 80.
Inland Tanaina:nǝn1
Kari 2007: 65; Kari 1977: 80.
Iliamna Tanaina:nǝn1
Kari 2007: 65; Kari 1977: 80.
TFN_NOTES:
The same morpheme in the prefixal possessive pronoun n- 'thy', 2 sg. subject verbal prefix -n-, 2 sg. object verbal prefix -n(ǝ)- [Kari 2007: 65; Lovick 2005: 41, 47; Tenenbaum 1978: 58, 73; Boraas 2010: 105, 123].
Central Ahtena:nen1
Kari 1990: 35, 300.
Lower Ahtena: nen [Kari 1990: 35, 300].
Western Ahtena: nen [Kari 1990: 35, 300].
Mentasta Ahtena:nen1
Kari 1990: 35, 300.
AHT_NOTES:
The same morpheme is present in the prefixal possessive pronoun n- 'thy', 2 sg. object verbal prefix -n-; etymologically distinct from the 2 sg. subject verbal prefix -i- [Kari 1990: 35, 57, 286].
Dogrib:nĩ́1
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 82; Marinakis et al. 2007: 40.
The same morpheme is present in the prefixal possessive pronoun né- 'thy', 2nd sg. subject verbal prefix -né-, 2nd sg. object verbal prefix -né- [Saxon & Siemens 1996: xiii; Marinakis et al. 2007: 39, 114, 128; Coleman 1976: 21].
North Slavey (Hare):nè-nĩ̀1
Rice 1989: 253; Hoijer 1956: 222. Final -nĩ is a suffix that modifies personal and some other pronouns.
Tanacross:nèn1
Arnold et al. 2009: 300. In [Holton 2000: 278], transcribed as nénʔ. The same morpheme is present in the prefixal possessive pronoun n- 'thy', 2nd sg. subject verbal prefix -ìn-, 2nd sg. object verbal prefix -n- [Holton 2000: 145, 199, 248].
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):nan1
Milanowski 2009: 82. The same morpheme is present in the prefixal possessive pronoun n- 'thy' [Milanowski 2009: 9].
Northway: nan 'thou' [Milanowski 2007: 15].
Scottie Creek: nɤn̥ 'thou' [John 1997: 83].
Lower Tanana (Minto):nǝn̥1
Kari 1994: 202. The same morpheme is present in the prefixal possessive pronoun nǝ- 'thy', 2nd sg. subject verbal prefix -nǝ-, 2nd sg. object verbal prefix -nǝ- [Kari 1994: 202].
Central Carrier:nyʌn1
Poser 1998/2013: 403; Antoine et al. 1974: 351. The same morpheme is present in the prefixal possessive pronoun n- 'thy', 2nd sg. subject verbal prefix -in-, 2nd sg. object verbal prefix -nyʌ- [Antoine et al. 1974: 349-350].
Koyukon:nǝn̥1
Jetté & Jones 2000: 469, 805; Jones & Kwaraceius 1997: 4. The same morpheme is present in the prefixal possessive pronoun nǝ- 'thy', 2nd sg. subject verbal prefix -nǝ-, 2nd sg. object verbal prefix -nǝ- [Jetté & Jones 2000: 805].
Degexit'an:ŋǝn̥1
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 25. The same morpheme is present in the prefixal possessive pronoun ŋǝ- 'thy' [Kari 1978: 25].
Sarsi:ní-ní1
Cook 1984: 62; Hoijer 1956: 222. Final -ní is a morpheme common for all independent personal pronouns. The same root morpheme is present in the prefixal possessive pronoun ni- 'thy', 2nd sg. subject verbal prefix -ni-, 2nd sg. object verbal prefix -ni- [Cook 1984: 64, 193, 197].
NUMBER:88
WORD:tongue
Hupa:possr=saː=s=tʰaːn1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 782; Golla 1996: 98. A descriptive formation < *sah-si-tʰaːn-i '(inside) the mouth it (stick-like object) lies'.
Mattole:possr=sa=s=tʰˈaːn1
Li 1930: 131. A descriptive formation '(inside) the mouth (q.v.) it (long object) lies' from the verb =tʰaːn (< *=tʰan-i) 'to lie (said of long object)' [Li 1930: 89].
Bear River dialect: possr=sa-s-tʰˈan ~ possr=sa-s-tʰaŋ 'tongue' [Goddard 1929: 322].
Hoijer 1973: 61. There is no single term for 'tongue' in Taldash Galice according to [Hoijer 1973], but two compounds with specific meanings are used instead: possr=taː-ɬoʔ 'back/root of the tongue' [Hoijer 1973: 53] (with =taː- 'mouth' q.v.) and possr=saː-ɬoʔ 'tip of the tongue' [Hoijer 1973: 58] (with =saː- '?').
In [Landar 1977: 295], the generic term for 'tongue' is quoted as the compound ɬaː=ɬoː (i.e., ɬaː=ɬo-ʔ) with ɬaː- '?'.
Cf. the word ɬoː-čʰoh 'snake' q.v., literally 'big tongue' with the augmentative suffix -čʰoh (see notes on 'big').
Upper Inlet Tanaina:possr=cʰi-la2
Kari 2007: 90, 359; Kari 1977: 99.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:possr=cʰi-lu2
Kari 2007: 90, 359; Kari 1977: 99.
Inland Tanaina:possr=cʰi-la2
Kari 2007: 90, 359; Kari 1977: 99; Wassillie 1979: 103.
Iliamna Tanaina:possr=cʰi-la2
Kari 2007: 90, 359; Kari 1977: 99.
TFN_NOTES:
Apparently =cʰila originates from contracted *=cʰilu-a with the izafet exponent -a, whereas Outer Inlet possr=cʰilu lacks this optional suffix.
=cʰilu is to be analyzed as a historical compound, cf. the plain lu in Outer Inlet, Inland, Iliamnapossr=lu 'blade, edge (of knife, axe, flaked stone)' [Kari 2007: 189].
Central Ahtena:possr=cʰu-la-ʔ2
Kari 1990: 397, 611; Kari & Buck 1975: 63; Smelcer 2010: 46.
Western Ahtena: possr=cʰu-la-ʔ [Kari 1990: 397, 611; Kari & Buck 1975: 63; Smelcer 2010: 46].
Mentasta Ahtena:possr=cʰu-la-ʔ2
Kari 1990: 397, 611; Kari & Buck 1975: 63; Smelcer 2010: 46.
AHT_NOTES:
Final -ʔ is the izafet exponent; in compounds, the form cʰula- with polysemy: 'tongue / flame, bolt of lightning' is used. Synchronically, the form looks like a compound: cʰu '?' + la '?'.
It is suggested in [Kari 1990: 397] that the underlying Ahtena root is cʰul (i.e., *possr=cʰul-eʔ), which has been reanalyzed as a compound.
Dogrib:possr=wá=lìː ~ possr=wá=rìː4
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 46, 223. The rhotacized variant possr=wárìː is glossed with polysemy: 'tongue / windpipe' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 46]. An unclear compound; for the first element cf. possr=wá-zèː 'spittle, saliva' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 46] (with -zèː '?'). It is tempting to analyze wá as possr=wà 'mouth' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 46], but the tonal metathesis à > á is abnormal.
North Slavey (Hare):POSSR=wà=rì4
Rice 1978: 105, 177; Hoijer 1956: 222. The first element synchronously coincides with possr=wá-ʔ, wà- 'mouth' q.v. Cf. =lá-ʔ ~ =lár-éʔ 'tip of' [Rice 1978: 177].
Tanacross:possr=tθʰǔː-l-ʔ2
Arnold et al. 2009: 272; Holton 2000: 348; Brean & Milanowski 1979: 24; McRoy 1973: 8; Shinen 1958: 3.
Kari 1994: 314, 498; Tuttle 2009: 209. In compounds, the variant tθʰula- is used: possr=tθʰula-ƛʼul-aʔ 'frenulum of the tongue', literally 'tongue's cord' [Kari 1994: 314].
Central Carrier:possr=c̪ʰu-la2
Poser 1998/2013: 507, 962; Poser 2011a: 219; Antoine et al. 1974: 50, 335. We treat =c̪ʰu-la as a historical compound, cf. -la 'tip' attested in possr=c̪ʼil-la 'tip of elbow' [Poser 1998/2013: 508] (< possr=c̪ʼil 'elbow').
Koyukon:possr=ƛʰuː-l-ǝʔ2
Jetté & Jones 2000: 585, 1038; Jones 1978: 177. The incorporated variant of this word is ƛʰuːloː-, thus possr=ƛʰuːl-ǝʔ is apparently the result of reanalyzis of the old compound possr=ƛʰuː-loː-ʔ as a CVC-root with the standard izafet suffix -ǝʔ. Cf. loːy 'tip' attested, e.g., in tʼoː-loːy 'tip of feather' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 552] (tʼoː 'feather') or possr=loːy-ǝt 'end, tip' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 405] (locative suffix -yǝt).
Degexit'an:possr=tθʰeː-l2
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 34. Cf. possr=loːy 'the tip or top of something' [Taff et al. 2007]. See further notes on Koyukon.
Sarsi:possr=cʰù-ʔ2
Hoijer & Joël 1963: 69; Hoijer 1956: 222.
NUMBER:89
WORD:tooth
Hupa:possr=woʔ1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 795; Golla 1996: 95; Golla 1964: 110. Polysemy: 'tooth / fishhook'. Morphologically either =woʔ or =woː-ʔ.
Mattole:possr=ɣʷˈoʔ1
Li 1930: 126. Morphologically either =ɣʷoʔ or =ɣʷo-ʔ.
Bear River dialect: possr=woʔ ~ possr=go 'teeth' [Goddard 1929: 321].
Kato:possr=woːʔ1
Goddard 1912: 22; Curtis 1924: 201.
Taldash Galice:possr=koʔ1
Hoijer 1973: 56; Hoijer 1956: 223; Landar 1977: 295. Synchronically, either =koʔ or =ko-ʔ.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:possr=ʁi1
Kari 2007: 89, 359; Kari 1977: 99.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:possr=zaqʼ=ǝz=ƛi2
Kari 2007: 89, 359; Kari 1977: 99. Nominalized verbal forms, literally 'plural objects in mouth' with the incorporated morpheme zaqʼ= 'mouth' q.v. and the classificatory verb =lu 'to handle plural objects' [Boraas 2010: 118; Tenenbaum 1978: 141; Holton et al. 2004: 40 ff.], modified with the perfective exponent =z=, the classifier =t= and the relative nominalizer -i with the subsequent contraction, i.e., =ǝzƛi < *=z=t=lu-i.
Inland Tanaina:possr=ʁi1
Kari 2007: 89, 359; Kari 1977: 99; Wassillie 1979: 103.
Iliamna Tanaina:possr=ʁi1
Kari 2007: 89, 359; Kari 1977: 99.
TFN_NOTES:
The old root was superseded by the descriptive new formation in Outer Inlet.
Central Ahtena:possr=ʁu-ʔ1
Kari 1990: 225, 611; Kari & Buck 1975: 63; Smelcer 2010: 46.
Kari 1994: 134, 498. In compounds, the variant ɣu- is used.
Central Carrier:possr=ɣu1
Poser 1998/2013: 159, 963; Poser 2011a: 219; Antoine et al. 1974: 24, 333.
Koyukon:possr=ʁuː-ʔ1
Jetté & Jones 2000: 260, 1038; Jones 1978: 177.
In the Lower dialect, this item competes with the nominalized verbal form possr=loː=ƛǝ=ʔoː-ʔo 'tooth' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 59, 404], literally '(compact) object in the mouth' < loː 'mouth' q.v. + the generic classificatory verb =ʔoː 'compact object is in position' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 40] + the izafet suffix -ʔo.
Degexit'an:possr=ʁeː-ʔ1
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 34; Chapman 1914: 223.
Li 1930: 130 (sub sˈaɕʰiŋ), 132. Polysemy: 'tree / stick'. Additionally cf. the compounds ʔis-ɕʰiŋ 'fir tree' [Li 1930: 132], sˈa-ɕʰiŋ 'acorn' [Li 1930: 130] (ɕʰiŋ is also accepted as a word for 'tree' in [Hoijer 1956: 224]).
Distinct from čʰiš 'wood' [Li 1930: 132] (i.e., 'piece of wood', not 'forest'?) and ʔi=s=noː 'timber' [Li 1930: 129] (literally 'what has been piled up', although =noː is not documented as a separate verb in [Li 1930]) .
Bear River dialect: not attested. Cf. čʰʷiš ~ čʰex ~ čʰeːx ~ čʰes '(piece of) wood' [Goddard 1929: 311, 322].
Kato:čʰǝn1
Goddard 1912: 16, 20, 25; Curtis 1924: 205. In [Curtis 1924], expectedly quoted as čʰǝŋ, whereas Goddard's transcription čʰǝn is not entirely clear (< *čʰǝn-i?). Polysemy: 'tree / wood, firewood' (for the latter meaning see [Goddard 1909: 103 No. 11-13]). There is, however, also a separate term al 'wood, firewood' [Goddard 1912: 19; Goddard 1909: 137 No. 12].
Distinct from cʼayeː 'firewood' [Hoijer 1973: 59].
Upper Inlet Tanaina:cʼpa-la2
Kari 2007: 47, 360.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:čʼwa-la2
Kari 2007: 47, 360. Note the unusual sound w (this form is confirmed in [Kari 1977: 59]) instead of expected p.
Inland Tanaina:čʼva-la2
Kari 2007: 47, 360.
Iliamna Tanaina:čʼva-la2
Kari 2007: 47, 360.
TFN_NOTES:
As noted in [Kari 2007], with polysemy: 'spruce, white spruce (Picea spp.); tree (generic)' in all the dialects (including Seldovia čʼwa-la). No expressions for generic 'tree' in [Kari 1977: 59], where these forms are only glossed as 'spruce (Picea spp.)'.
The historical compound čʼva-la is synchronically unanalyzable (the first element čʼva is the old term for 'spruce').
Distinct from two terms for 'wood', shared by all the dialects: čʰikʼa (Upper Inlet cʰikʼa) 'wood, dry wood, stick, firewood', t=kʰǝn 'stick, wood, pole, wooden, altered wood' (initial t= is the qualifier, i.e., gender prefix 'long rigid object') [Kari 2007: 47, 250].
Central Ahtena:cʼapeː-li2
Kari 1990: 102, 613; Kari & Buck 1975: 33; Smelcer 2010: 109.
Western Ahtena: cʼapeː-li [Kari 1990: 102, 613; Kari & Buck 1975: 33; Smelcer 2010: 109].
Mentasta Ahtena:cʼapeː-l2
Kari 1990: 102, 613; Kari & Buck 1975: 33; Smelcer 2010: 109. Regular reduction of final -i.
AHT_NOTES:
Polysemy: 'spruce, white spruce / tree'. The historical compound cʼapeː-li is synchronically unanalyzable. Final -li is detached because of the full variant cʼapeː- 'spruce', used in compounds [Kari 1990: 102] and the reduced variant -cʼuː(-)ʔ, attested as the second element of compounds for 'black spruce' and 'straight spruce without many limbs' [Kari 1990: 417].
Distinct from kʰʸen ~ tʰ=kʰʸen (Mentasta: te=kʰʸen) 'stick, log, pole; wood, wooden object; stem, stalk of plant, trunk of tree' [Kari 1990: 114] (initial t(e)= is the qualifier [Kari 1990: 131]).
Dogrib:té=čʰĩ́1
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 13, 224. Innovative pronunciation: té=cʰĩ́. The possessed form is optionally rhotacized: possr=té-čʰĩ̀ː ~ possr=ré-čʰĩ̀ː [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 87]. Polysemy: 'tree / bush / twig / log / stick, pole / mile, yard (measure)'.
It may be seen from the numerous attested examples that té=čʰĩ́ is the default term for 'tree': "These houses are among the trees" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 19], "One day the old man put up a string stretching from one tree to another" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 33], "The fruit tree is growing" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 87], "That is where the boy hopped between the trees" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 108], "He is shouting in among the trees" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 112], "She sat next to the tree under the snow for a long time" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 116], "He climbed the tree" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 128], "between the trees" [Marinakis et al. 2007: 69], "he is shouting in among the trees" [Marinakis et al. 2007: 70].
The first element té- is a detachable gender prefix, cf. such compounds with čʰĩ ‘tree’ as ĩ́h-čʰĩ̀ː 'tree stump in the ground' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 53], nṍh-cʰĩ́ː 'trees used as markers on a lake trail' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 85], xó-čʰĩ̀ː 'root' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 121].
The second candidate is cʼí with polysemy: 'tree / spruce / boat' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 105]. In [Siemens et al. 2007: 74], however, cʼí is only glossed as 'spruce tree'. The only found example for the generic meaning 'tree' is "There used to be trees standing there, but they cut them all down" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 76] plus a couple of compounds such as cʼí-wìː 'cluster of trees' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 106], cʼí-žõ̀ː 'old tree' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 106], cʼí-kʼʷõ̀ː 'bare tree without branches' [Marinakis et al. 2007: 159].
Apparently, cʼí 'spruce' has a tendency to denote 'tree' in general, but nevertheless, the default generic term in modern Dogrib seems to be té=čʰĩ́.
Distinct from tè-šĩ̀, possr=tè-šín-éʔ 'wood (material) / stick' [Rice 1978: 47], although in [Hoijer 1956: 222] it is quoted as the term for 'tree'. Initial tè- is a gender prefix referring to wood [Rice 1989: 606].
Distinct from sèh ~ sè 'firewood' [Rice 1978: 90].
Poser 1998/2013: 132, 967; Poser 2011a: 221; Antoine et al. 1974: 84, 335. Polysemy: 'tree / wood, timber / stick'.
A compound with an unclear first component tʌ and possr=čʰʌn 'handle of broom, canoe paddle, or similar object, stem of plant' [Poser 1998/2013: 102], where čʰʌn seems to be the main meaningful element, cf. such compounds with čʰʌn *'tree' as: čʰʌn-tʰoh 'forest', literally 'among čʰʌn' [Poser 1998/2013: 103], čʰʌn-lʌt 'tree burnt yet standing', literally 'smoke of čʰʌn' [Poser 1998/2013: 103], etc.
Distinct from tǝ=kʰǝn̥ 'stick, log, wood, tree, wooden object, handle, wooden frame; the woods, brush, timber; stem, stalk, trunk of plant' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 294]. Initial tǝ= is probably a gender prefix; the isolated kʰǝn̥, possr=kʰǝn-ǝʔ means 'base, lower part of, open space; meadow, flat area, plain' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 293].
Distinct from kǝ=čʰǝn 'stump', kǝ=tǝ=čʰǝn 'stem, trunk, standing dead tree' [Kari 1978: 17] (kǝ- 'indefinite possessive', tǝ- '?').
Distinct from two dialectal words for 'spruce tree': Yukon tǝ=ƛaːŋ, Kuskokwim cʼǝvǝ [Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 19].
Sarsi:ì=čʰí1
Hoijer & Joël 1963: 72; Hoijer 1956: 222. Initial i= is the fossilized indefinite non-personal possessive. Polysemy: 'tree / brush / wood, timber'; cf. some examples for the general meaning 'tree': "Let's run up to the eagle which is brooding on the tree", "Son, an angry bear is staying among those trees; don't go near it" [Cook 1984: 44], "All his dogs he tied up. All the trees were lighted up" [Goddard 1915: 249], "Small boy climbed up the tree" [Goddard 1915: 267].
Distinct from possr=tì=čʰín-ɒ̀ʔ 'stick, piece of wood' [Hoijer & Joël 1963: 72] which contains the same root čʰin plus the desemanticized morpheme ti.
Sapir & Golla 2001: 774; Golla 1996: 100; Golla 1970: 255. Originates < *nahxi. The reduced variant, used as the first element of compounds, is nah- [Sapir & Golla 2001: 774].
Mattole:nakʰˈeh1
Li 1930: 134.
Bear River dialect: nakʰˈah ~ nakʰa 'two' [Goddard 1929: 322].
Kato:nak-kʰaʔ1
Goddard 1912: 36; Curtis 1924: 205. Both sources explicitly quote this form with the double velar ...k-kʰ...
Kari 2007: 322; Wassillie 1979: 105. Applied to things.
Iliamna Tanaina:nu-tʰ-iχ-a1
Kari 2007: 322. Applied to things.
TFN_NOTES:
Forms of the numeral '2' demonstrate important discrepancies between the dialects.
Forms applied to things are listed above; note the specific Upper Inlet variants nu-tʰ-a ~ nu-tʰ-ay. The suffixes -a(y) and -iχ-a are only singled out on the basis of the synchronic paradigm of this numeral. The morpheme chain nu-tʰ- is synchronically unanalyzable at all.
Forms applied to humans are formed with help of the plural relative nominalizer -na 'those persons who' [Kari 2007: 329; Holton et al. 2004: 15; Boraas 2010: 17, 52]: Upper Inlet nut-na (< *nutʰ-na), Outer Inlet, Inland, Iliamna Tanaina nutʰiχ-na.
The multiplicative 'twice' is expressed in all the dialects with the plain form nu-tʰ-iχ, although in Upper Inlet the parallel forms nu-tǝχ and nu-ti are attested (< *nu-tʰ-tǝχ and *nu-tʰ-ti, or directly < *nu-tǝχ and *nu-ti; for the adverbial suffix -ti see notes on 'new').
It is interesting that in both of the most ancient records of Tanaina (the specific dialects are unclear) by William Anderson (1778) and Nikolai Rezanov (1805), the numeral '2' is transcribed as tʰiχa instead of the expected nutʰiχa [Kari 2007: 323].
Central Ahtena:na-teːqi1
Kari 1990: 287, 614, 634; Kari & Buck 1975: 99; Smelcer 2010: 102.
Western Ahtena: na-teːqi [Kari 1990: 287, 614, 634; Kari & Buck 1975: 99; Smelcer 2010: 102].
Mentasta Ahtena:na-teːqe1
Kari 1990: 287, 614, 634; Kari & Buck 1975: 99; Smelcer 2010: 102. Regular assimilation -i > -e.
AHT_NOTES:
The form na-teːqi is applicable to things and animals; suffixation is unclear, but the form can be analyzed as na-teːq-i (thus Kari). Cf. the forms of the numeral 'two' with other suffixes (no dialectal difference): naː-tʰne applicable to persons (with suffixed -tʰne < teneː 'person' q.v.); naː-te applicable to times and places; naː-χu applicable to ways [Kari 1990: 287, 634].
Dogrib:nàkʰé1
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 78, 225.
North Slavey (Hare):rákʰiè1
Rice 1978: 86, 179; Rice 1989: 10, 373, 376; Hoijer 1956: 222. There are two cardinal numerals with the meaning '2' in Hare: rákʰiè and ʔõ̀kʰè-tʼè, see notes on '1' for the difference. Numerals rákʰiè and ʔõ̀=kʰè-tʼè are cognate with each other; initial r- < n- (the form with the retained nasal is documented in Hoijer's list), the forms ʔõ̀=kʰè-tʼè, ʔĩ́=kʰè-tʼè are extended with vocalic prefixes, final -tʼè / -tʼiè is the verb 'there are number' [Rice 1989: 383, 385].
Tanacross:ɬtíːkʰèːy1
Arnold et al. 2009: 278; Holton 2000: 348; Brean & Milanowski 1979: 21; McRoy 1973: 16; Shinen 1958: 18.
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):ɬaːkʰey1
Milanowski 2009: 80.
Scottie Creek: ɬàːkʰay 'two' [John 1997: 52].
Lower Tanana (Minto):nʌtʰikʼ-a1
Kari 1994: 238, 502; Tuttle 2009: 213; Frank et al. 1988: 34. Used with unanimated objects ("two things"). For humans the stem nʌtʰix-na is used ("two people") with the human pl. relative suffix -na [Kari 1994: 196]. Cf. also the adverb nʌtʰix-tǝ 'two times, places' [Kari 1994: 238].
Central Carrier:na-n-kʰi1
Poser 1998/2013: 318, 1284; Antoine et al. 1974: 396. This is the generic form. Cf. other forms applicable to various objects: human na-ne, multiplicative na-t, locative na-tʌn, abstract na-xʷ.
Koyukon:nǝtʰiːqʼ-iː1
Jetté & Jones 2000: 504, 812; Jones 1978: 181. Applicable to things; Cf. other forms applicable to various objects: human nǝtʰiːχ-nǝ, way nǝtʰiːχ-cʼǝnʔ, direction nǝtʰiːχ-u.
Degexit'an:tʰeːqʰaː1
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 52. This numeral is applicable to women, animals and things, cf. some examples with tʰeːqʰaː: "On each side of the fire two beautiful women had set their pots to cook" [Chapman 1914: 131], "there were two masks hanging on it" [Chapman 1914: 172].
Other forms are used with 'men' and 'times': noːtʰ-ǝn is applicable to men; noːt ~ noːtʰ-ǝ is applicable to times ('twice')[Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 52; Chapman 1914: 215].
We treat tʰeːqʰaː and noːtʰ-ǝn as synonyms.
Sarsi:ákʰí-yī ~ íkʰí-yī1
Cook 1984: 76, 103; Hoijer 1956: 222.
NUMBER:91
WORD:two
Hupa:
Mattole:
Kato:
Taldash Galice:
Upper Inlet Tanaina:
Outer Inlet Tanaina:
Inland Tanaina:
Iliamna Tanaina:
Central Ahtena:
Mentasta Ahtena:
Dogrib:
North Slavey (Hare):ʔõ̀=kʰè-tʼè ~ ʔṍ=kʰè-tʼiè ~ ʔĩ́=kʰè-tʼè1
Rice 1978: 179; Rice 1989: 376.
Tanacross:
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):
Lower Tanana (Minto):
Central Carrier:
Koyukon:
Degexit'an:noːtʰ-ǝn1
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 52; Chapman 1914: 215.
Sarsi:
NUMBER:92
WORD:walk (go)
Hupa:=yaː1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 803; Golla 1996: 40; Golla 1970: 59 et passim. Same root as 'to come' q.v. The general meaning of the root is 'to move somewhere [intrans.]' [Golla 1970: 162, 301]. Used with sg. subj. The set =yaː-ʍ (*=yaː-ʍ-i) / =ya is treated in [Golla 1977: 357] as directional imperfective/perfective, whereas =ya / =ya-ʔ (< *=yaː-ʔ) is defined as nondirectional imperfective/perfective.
With pl. subj. the verb =tiɬ [light imperf.] / =til < *=tiɬ-i [heavy imperf.] / =teʔƛʼ< *=teːɬ-ʔ [light perf.] / =teːƛʼ< *=teːɬ-ʔ-i [heavy perf.] is used instead [Sapir & Golla 2001: 750; Golla 1996: 19, 40; Golla 1996a: 368; Golla 1970: 162].
Mattole:=yaː1
Li 1930: 75. The light perfective stem; the heavy perfective stem is =ya-i; the imperfective stem is =yaː-x. Polysemy: 'to go / to come (q.v.) / to go away'. Used with sg. subj.
Distinct from =tiɬ [imperf.] / =teːʔl (< *=tel-ʔ-i) [perf.] with polysemy: 'to go / to come / to go away / to fly' [Li 1930: 88], used with pl. subj.
Bear River dialect: perfective =ya-x 'to go' (used with sg. subj.) [Li 1930: 3].
Kato:=ya1
Goddard 1912: 60. Paradigm: =ya-š [imperf.] / =ya ~ =ya-i ~ =ya-ʔ [perf.]. Polysemy: 'to go / to come (q.v.) / to go away'. Used with sg. subj.
Distinct from =tǝɬ [imperf.] / =telʔ (< *=tel-ʔ-i) [perf.] with polysemy: 'to go / to come / to go away' [Goddard 1912: 69], used with pl. subj. (surprisingly, it is noted in [Goddard 1912: 69] that =tǝɬ / =telʔ is used with dual subj. only, although examples like [Goddard 1909: 96 No. 12] confirm the plural usage).
Taldash Galice:=yaː1
Hoijer 1973: 69. Paradigm: =ya-š [imperf.] / =yaː [perf.]. Polysemy: 'to go / to come'. Generic verb 'to move (intrans.)', used with sg. subj.
Distinct from =taš [imperf.] / =čaː [perf.] 'to move (intrans.)', used with both sg. & pl. subj. [Hoijer 1973: 64]; historically =ya-š / =yaː with the prefixed t-classifier.
Distinct from =taɬ ~ =teɬ [imperf.] / =teʔɬ (< *=teɬ-ʔ) [perf.] 'to move (intrans.)', used with dual. subj. [Hoijer 1973: 64].
Distinct from =kʰat [imperf.] / =kʰaʔ (< *=kʰat-ʔ) [perf.] 'to move (intrans.)', used with pl. subj. [Hoijer 1973: 68].
Kari 2007: 234; Wassillie 1979: 44. The imperfective stem is =yu-x.
Iliamna Tanaina:=yu1
Kari 2007: 234.
TFN_NOTES:
The common Tanaina verb =yu is used with sg. & dual. subj. Distinct from =taɬ [imperf.] / =tǝɬ [imperf. reversitive] / =taƛʼ [perf.] / =tǝɬ [fut.] 'to go' (all dialects), used with pl. subj. [Kari 2007: 234; Holton et al. 2004: 37 f.; Boraas 2010: 100]. Apparently both =yu and =taɬ are marked by the polysemy 'to go / to come (q.v.)'; additionally, =taɬ displays the polysemy 'to go / to come / to fly' - actually, this is a generic classificatory verb 'to handle plural objects' according to [Tenenbaum 1978: 45] (distinct from the more common classificatory verb 'to handle plural objects': =lu [Tenenbaum 1978: 141]).
It should be noted that the lexical opposition =yu / =taɬ is described as sg.-dual. / pl. in [Boraas 2010: 100; Lovick 2005: 22; Holton et al. 2004: 37 f.], but as the typologically normal system sg. / dual.-pl. in [Kari 2007: 329] - the latter is an apparent inaccuracy.
Central Ahtena:=yaː1
Kari 1990: 422, 500.
Lower Ahtena: =yaː [Kari 1990: 422, 500].
Western Ahtena: =yaː [Kari 1990: 422, 500].
Mentasta Ahtena:=yaː1
Kari 1990: 422, 500.
AHT_NOTES:
Polysemy: 'to go / to come'; used with sg. & dual. subj.
Distinct from =teːɬ [imperf.] / =teːƛʼ [perf.] 'to go / to come / to fly', used with pl. subj. [Kari 1990: 144].
Dogrib:=ƛʰá2
Saxon & Siemens 1996: ix, 16, 78, 171. Used with sg. & dual. subj. Polysemy: 'to go / to go away / to come'. Glossed as 'to go (one or two people), travel to a place (one or two people)' and 'to start out (one person), leave (one person), go (one person), land (a plane)'. For the meaning 'to come' see notes on 'to come'.
Distinct from =tè 'to go / to come', used with pl. subj. It is quoted in [Saxon & Siemens 1996: ix] with the meaning 'to walk', but the example "They go (=tè) to the barrenlands for caribou for as long as a week" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 49] suggests the basic meaning 'to go'; for 'to come' see notes on 'to come'.
Distinct from the verbs for 'to walk': =tá 'to walk (sg.)', =ʔà 'to walk (dual.)' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: ix]. With pl. subj. the aforementioned generic verb =tè 'to walk, go, come (pl.)' is used.
North Slavey (Hare):=t=ɬà2
Rice 1978: 312, 450, 505. Used with sg. & dual. subj.
According to [Rice 1989: 873], the Hare system of motion verbs should discriminate between the so-called "controlled" and "uncontrolled" actions (see notes on 'to give' where the same opposition is discussed for the so-called classificatory verbs), but synchronic details are not documented.
Apparently =t=ɬà is the default and most frequently used verb for 'to go (sg. & dual. subj.)'. Cf. some examples: "He went to his traps", "Go straight to where you shot it", "He went back by boat" [Rice 1978: 312], "Go for the meat" [Rice 1978: 197], "I'm going upstairs" [Rice 1978: 276], "I'm scared to go in that house" [Rice 1978: 277].
Distinct from the verb =t=tʼĩ̀ 'to go / to come', sg., dual. & pl. subj. [Rice 1978: 191, 468] which seems to be less frequently used. Cf. the examples: "Don't go near the dog", "We came for nothing", "In spring, people go to the bush" [Rice 1978: 191].
Distinct from the suppletive verb =tà (< =t=a) [imperf.] / =yà [perf.] 'to go, walk / to come', sg. subj. [Rice 1978: 311, 415, 505; Rice 1989: 868] (originates from *=a fused with various prefixal consonants) which is less frequently used and whose actual meaning is rather 'to walk' than generic 'to go'. Cf., e.g., the opposite examples: "Go across (=ɬa)" vs. "Walk across / Go across slowly (=ta, =ya)" [Rice 1978: 302].
With pl. subj., the verbs =h=wì with polysemy: 'to go / to walk / to come / to run' [Rice 1978: 244, 479, 505] or =tiè with polysemy: 'to go / to fly' [Rice 1978: 312, 418, 505] are used.
Tanacross:=hàːɬ1
Arnold et al. 2009: 133; Holton 2000: 214, 350; Shinen 1958: 40. A generic verb of going, with polysemy: 'to go / to come', used with sg. subj. Suppletive paradigm: =hàːɬ [imperf., fut.] / =š̬àh [perf.]. As proposed in [Holton 2000: 214], the imperfective root is to be historically analyzed as a suffixal formation: =hàː-ɬ, although -ɬ is the normal exponent of the future form [Holton 2000: 269].
With pl subj., the verb =téɬ [imperf., fut.] / =tèːƛ [perf.] 'to go / to come / to run / to fly' is used [Arnold et al. 2009: 133; Holton 2000: 160, 214, 350; Shinen 1958: 40].
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):=haːɬ1
Milanowski 2009: 43, 119. A generic verb of going with polysemy: 'to go / to come', used with sg. subj. Suppletive paradigm: =haːɬ [imperf., fut.] / =š̬ʸah [perf.] / =t=taː-k [customary].
With pl subj., the verb =teːɬ [imperf., perf.] / =ta-ɬ [fut.] / =t=ta-k [customary] 'to go / to come' is used [Milanowski 2009: 119].
Lower Tanana (Minto):=yʌ1
Kari 1994: 332, 412; Tuttle 2009: 87; Urschel 2006: 26. A generic verb of going with polysemy: 'to go / to come', used with sg. & dual. subj. Paradigm: =yʌ-y̥ [momentaneous/customary imperf.] / =yʌ [perf.] / =yʌ-ɬ [momentaneous progressive].
Distinct from =ʔʌʂ [imperf.] / =ʔʌc [perf.] / =ʔʊʂ [customary] 'to go / to come' used with dual. subj. [Kari 1994: 28, 411; Tuttle 2009: 87; Urschel 2006: 26, 84].
Distinct from =taɬ [imperf.] / =taƛ [perf.] / =tǝɬ [progressive] / =tǝ-k [customary] 'to go / to come / to fly / to swim' used with pl. subj. [Kari 1994: 63, 412; Tuttle 2009: 88; Urschel 2006: 26, 83].
Central Carrier:=ya1
Poser 1998/2013: 738, 1223, 1263; Poser 2011a: 103; Poser 2011b: 38; Antoine et al. 1974: 337. A generic verb of going with polysemy: 'to go / to come', used with sg. subj. Paradigm: =ya [continuous imperf.] / =ya-ʔ [continuous perf.] / =yai-h [customary/momentaneous imperf.] / =ya-ɬ [progressive imperf.].
Distinct from =ʔas 'to go / to come' [Poser 1998/2013: 738, 1218, 1247; Poser 2011b: 38] used with dual. subj.
Distinct from =tiɬ 'to go / to come' [Poser 1998/2013: 738, 1219, 1250; Poser 2011b: 38] used with pl. subj.
Koyukon:=hoː1
Jetté & Jones 2000: 700, 918; Jones 1978: 71, 186; Jones & Kwaraceius 1997: 109. A generic verb of going with polysemy: 'to go / to come', used with sg. subj. Suppletive paradigm: =hoː-y̥ [momentaneous imperf.] / =yoː [momentaneous perf.] / =hoː-ɬ [momentaneous fut.] / =yoː-ʔ [momentaneous opt.] / =hoː [continuative imperf.] / =yoː [continuative perf.] / =hoː-ɬ [continuative fut./opt.]. The Toklat-Bearpaw subdialect of the Upper dialect tends to use the root =yoː all through the paradigm.
Distinct from =ʔoːs [imperf.] / =ʔoːc [perf.] / =ʔos-ƛ ~ =ʔǝs-ƛ [fut.] 'to go / to come' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 66, 919; Jones & Kwaraceius 1997: 109] used with dual. subj.
Distinct from =taːɬ [imperf.] =taːƛ [perf.] / =tǝɬ ~ =tǝɬ-ƛ [fut.] with polysemy: 'to go / to come / to swim' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 116, 919; Jones & Kwaraceius 1997: 109] used with pl. subj.
Degexit'an:=hoː-ʔ1
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1976: 2; Chapman 1914: 212. A generic verb of going with polysemy: 'to go / to come', used with sg. subj. Suppletive paradigm: =oː-y̥ [momentaneous imperf.] / =yoː [momentaneous perf.] / =hoː-ɬ [momentaneous fut.] / =yoː-ʔ [momentaneous opt.] / =hoː-ʔ [continuative imperf.] / =yoː [continuative perf.].
Distinct from =ʔoːʂ [imperf.] / =ʔoːc [perf.] / =ʔʊʂ [fut.] 'to go / to come' [Kari 1976: 5; Chapman 1914: 211] used with dual. subj.
Distinct from =taːɬ [imperf.] =taːƛ [perf.] with polysemy: 'to go / to come / to swim' [Taff et al. 2007; Chapman 1914: 225] used with pl. subj.
Sarsi:=yá ~ =yáh1
Li 1930b: 16; Cook 1984: 56. A generic verb of going with polysemy: 'to go / to come', used with sg. subj. Paradigm: =yá(h) [imperf.] / =yā [perf.].
Distinct from =tʼɒ̀s [imperf.] / =tʼɒ́ːz ~ =tʼɒ́c- [perf.] (< *=t=ʔɒc) 'to go / to come' [Li 1930b: 19; Cook 1984: 56] used with dual. subj.
Distinct from =tàɬ [imperf.] / =táːl ~ =táƛʼ- [perf.] with polysemy: 'to go / to come / to fly' [Li 1930b: 18; Cook 1984: 56] used with pl. subj.
Sapir & Golla 2001: 782; Golla 1996: 47, 104; Golla 1970: 143. Originates < *=sel-i. Polysemy: 'to be hot / to be warm'. Applicable to both objects and weather.
Mattole:=sel1
Li 1930: 108. Verbal root 'to be warm'. Originates from *=sel-i (heavy stem). No separate term for 'hot' is documented.
Bear River dialect: =sal ~ =saɬ ~ =sul with polysemy: 'to be hot / to be warm' [Goddard 1929: 317, 322].
Kato:=sǝl1
Goddard 1912: 66. Verbal root with polysemy: 'to be warm / to be hot' (applied to both objects and weather). Paradigm: -sǝɬ < *=sǝl [light stem] / -sǝl < *=sǝl-i [heavy stem].
Taldash Galice:=saɬ1
Hoijer 1973: 70 No. 244/249; Hoijer 1956: 223; Landar 1977: 295. Polysemy: 'to be warm / to be hot'. Ablaut paradigm: =siɬ [imperf.] / =saɬ [perf.].
Upper Inlet Tanaina:
Not attested properly.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:
Not attested properly.
Inland Tanaina:=l=qʰǝn2
Wassillie 1979: 108. Used as either the verbal root 'to be warm' or the nominalized adjective n=a=l=qʰǝn-i. Ablaut paradigm: =l=qʰǝn / =l=qʰun / =l=qʰin; cf. fut./opt. =l=qʰi-ɬ [Kari 2007: 342] and imperfective causative =ɬ=qʰi-x 'to warm (trans.)' [Tenenbaum 1976 4: 18]. This is the most frequent root for 'warm', apparently applied to both objects and weather.
Cf. the following examples for =l=qʰǝn: "it's warm (area)", "It's too warm", "it was warm" [Wassillie 1979: 108], "warm coat" [Wassillie 1979: 23], "The place was warm with a fire burning in the middle of the floor. It was really nice and warm inside" [Tenenbaum 1976 3: 5], "Is it getting warm again?" [Kari 2007: 342], "That is how they used to warm him up" (causative) [Tenenbaum 1976 4: 18], "he is hot, feels hot" [Kari 2007: 100], "Are you warm?" [Wassillie 1979: 109].
A second candidate is the verbal form ǝ=va. This is frequently glossed as 'hot' [Wassillie 1979: 51], but available instances suggest that ǝ=va is normally applied to weather. Cf.: "It is too warm (ǝ=va), open the door" [Wassillie 1979: 70], "It's a hot (ǝ=va) day, you go swimming" [Wassillie 1979: 99], "It was really hot (a=va)" (of weather) [Tenenbaum 1976 3: 45]. The more relevant instance is "it's hot!" (of a fallen spark) [Tenenbaum 1976 1: 79], but it must be noted that here the form ǝ=pa-ʔ is used (phonetically an Upper Inlet or Outer Inlet variant). However, the collocation ǝ=va-yi minɬni 'hot water' (with minɬni 'water' q.v.) is significant, see notes on Common Tanaina. The semantic difference between =l=qʰǝn and =va is unclear.
Cf. also the verb =l=ʁuž, which is once translated as 'to be warm' in the significant context: "it is warm (water)' [Tenenbaum 1978: 152]. The correct meaning of =l=ʁuž seems, however, to be 'to boil', cf. the paradigmatic variant =l=ʁǝč 'to boil' [Tenenbaum 1978: 123; Kari 2007: 293].
Iliamna Tanaina:
Not attested properly.
TFN_NOTES:
Words for 'warm' and 'hot' are poorly and inconsistently documented in the available sources. In particular, it remains unclear whether the lexical opposition 'warm' / 'hot' is stable in Tanaina dialects or only occasional.
The best attested word is =l=qʰǝn, apparently with polysemy: 'to be warm / to be hot', which is applied to both objects and weather (denominative verb ← qʰǝn 'fire' q.v.). In addition to the data listed for Inland Tanaina, cf. the Common Tanaina expression for 'hot springs', literally 'hot/warm water': miɬni n=a=l=qʰǝn-i (apparently with dialectal variants for the word for 'water' q.v.) [Kari 2007: 122]; and the Common Tanaina expression for 'hot lava', literally 'hot/warm charcoal': n=a=l=qʰǝn-i tʼaš [Kari 2007: 145]. For Upper Inlet, cf. also the collocation n=a=l=qʰǝn-i piɬni 'hot water' (with piɬni 'water'), quoted in [Kari 2007: 293].
The second documented item is the verbal root =pa (Upper Inlet, Outer Inlet) / =va (Inland, Iliamna) 'to be warm, hot'. It is indeed frequently applied to weather (in addition to the data listed for Inland Tanaina, cf. the Common Tanaina nominalized expression for 'warmth, warm weather': Upper Inlet, Outer Inlet ǝ=pa-yi, Inland, Iliamna ǝ=va-ʔi [Kari 2007: 153]), but not exclusively to weather. First, cf. the Common Tanaina exclamation '(it's) hot!': Upper Inlet, Outer Inlet ǝ=pa, Inland, Iliamna ǝ=va [Kari 1977: 278]. Second, the Common Tanaina expression for 'hot water', documented in [Kari 2007: 293], is nominalized Upper Inlet, Outer Inlet ǝ=pa-yi, Inland, Iliamna ǝ=va-yi; in Inland, also the full collocation ǝ=va-yi minɬni (with minɬni 'water' q.v.) is attested; in Upper Inlet, nominalized ǝ=pa-yi is synonymous with the full collocation that includes another verb: n=a=l=qʰǝn-i piɬni 'hot water'.
Thus, both =l=qʰǝn and =pa/=va are attested with the meaning 'to be warm, hot', both are applicable to objects and weather, and the synchronic diffirence between them is unclear.
There existed, however, a more archaic verb 'to be warm, hot / to warm [trans.]', =siɬ, which is synchronously retained in several fossilized expressions. These are: Inland tʰu-zǝɬ 'hot springs', literally 'hot/warm water' (with obsolete tʰu 'water' q.v.) [Kari 2007: 122], Inland nominalized tʰu=ni=siɬ-i 'mayfly (Ephemeroptera)', literally 'one that warms up the water' [Kari 2007: 43], Upper Inlet nominalized ni=sil-i 'summer caribou', literally 'one that gets hot' [Kari 2007: 4], and the Common Tanaina substantive for 'sweat': Upper Inlet possr=yil-a, Outer Inlet possr=zil-ʔa, Inland possr=zil-a [Kari 2007: 97]. It is probable that actually =siɬ should be posited as the Proto-Tanaina root for 'warm, hot'.
Central Ahtena:=l=kʼʸoq3
Kari 1990: 127, 618.
Lower Ahtena: =l=kʼʸoq [Kari 1990: 127, 618].
Western Ahtena: =l=kʼʸoq [Kari 1990: 127, 618].
Mentasta Ahtena:=l=kʼʸoq3
Kari 1990: 127, 618.
AHT_NOTES:
There are several documented Ahtena terms for 'warm' and 'hot' [Kari 1990: 618]. Out of these, the verb =l=kʼʸoq seems the most basic. This is applicable to both objects and weather, glossed with the polysemy 'to be warm / to be hot' in [Kari 1990: 127].
A second candidate is =l=qʰõʔ (all dialects; Western: =l=qʰonʔ) 'to be(come) warm, hot' [Kari 1990: 244, 690]. This denominative verb (← qʰõʔ 'fire' q.v.) is applicable at least to objects (e.g., to a stone), but specified by Kari as denoting hotter temperatures than =l=kʼʸoq.
Distinct from the inchoative verb =ziːɬ 'to become warm, hot' (all dialects) [Kari 1990: 455]; applicable to both objects and weather.
A fourth term is the noun-like adjective ʔe=peː ~ ʔe=pe 'hot' [Kari 1990: 102], applicable at least to objects (for the prefix ʔe=, see [Kari 1990: 90]).
Dogrib:=kʰõ̀2
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 48, 117, 177, 227; Marinakis et al. 2007: 162. Verbal root with polysemy: 'to be warm / to be hot'. Derived from the noun kʰõ̀ 'fire' q.v. Applied to both weather/atmosphere (example: "The weather is getting warm" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 48]) and objects (in the latter meaning glossed as 'to be hot to touch, be heated'; cf. the collocation tʰí ʍé=kʰõ̀ː tʰṍ 'thermos bottle, hot water bottle' with tʰí 'water' and tʰṍ 'container' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 97]).
The meaning 'to be hot' can additionally be expressed as =kʰõ̀ tìè 'to be hot' Saxon & Siemens 1996: 48, 177] with the adverb tìè ~ tìː 'very, really, too much, too many' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 20].
Distinct from the fossilized verbal form é=tí 'hot; heat, fever' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 25, 177]. The exact meaning and application of é=tí is unclear, but the explicit gloss étí 'hot weather' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: ii] and the collocation étíː-nèkʼé 'hot country, tropical land' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 25] suggest that é=tí is applicable to weather, not objects.
North Slavey (Hare):=wì1
Rice 1978: 329, 479; Hoijer 1956: 222. Paradigm: =wì [imperf.] / =wè [perf.]. Additionally, a suffixed stem with retained final consonant -l- is used: =wèl-è [Rice 1978: 383, 476; Rice 1989: 243], for the desemanticized verbal suffix -e see[Rice 1989: 816]. Verb with polysemy: 'to be warm / to be hot', wèl-è can also function as a noun-like adjective.
Cf. examples for =wì / =wè: "The stove is hot", "The house got warm", "I'm getting hot" [Rice 1978: 329], "Warm your hands" [Rice 1978: 317].
Cf. examples for =wèl-è: "warm wind" [Rice 1978: 182], "This sweater shrinks in hot water" [Rice 1978: 333], "It's hot outside", "The soup is hot" [Rice 1978: 383], "you must not touch the stove when it is hot" [Rice 1989: 412], "it is warm" [Rice 1989: 908].
Distinct from the very rare verb =kʰõ̀ 'to be hot' [Rice 1989: 687, 816], not found in [Rice 1978].
Distinct from =t=kʷì ~ =t=pì 'to warm oneself' [Rice 1978: 317, 412, 551] (see [Rice 1978: 2] for this phonetic fluctuation).
Tanacross:=l=kón-ʔ4
Arnold et al. 2009: 286; Holton 2000: 352. Verbal root: 'to be warm'. =l=kón-ʔ is apparently the perfective stem; in [Holton 2000], the imperfective =l=kón is quoted. Applied to both weather/atmosphere and objects.
Distinct from =θ̬èɬ 'to be hot' [Arnold et al. 2009: 148; Holton 2000: 350; Shinen 1958: 20], applied to both weather/atmosphere and objects.
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):=l=kʰɯnʔ2
Milanowski 2009: 21, 45, 88, 109. Verbal root: 'to be warm' (apparently the perfective stem with the exponent -ʔ). Exact application is unclear. Derived from the noun kʰɯnʔ 'fire' q.v.
Distinct from =lɯk ~ =ɬɯk 'to be hot' [Milanowski 2009: 46, 98].
Scottie Creek: =l=kʰon-ʔ 'to be warm' [John 1997: 67].
Lower Tanana (Minto):=ðǝɬ1
Kari 1994: 85, 506; Tuttle 2009: 101. Verb with polysemy: 'to be warm / to be hot'; also functions as the noun-like adjective ðǝɬ 'hot'. Applicable to both objects and weather. Cf. the examples: "I am warm", "the weather is hot", "the water is hot", "the water is not hot", "area became warm (in spring)", "in which house will I warm up my hands?", "the hot springs water-steam is rising", "in summer the caribou are hot" [Kari 1994: 86], "It's cold, drink hot tea!", "The weather is hot" [Tuttle 2009: 101].
A second candidate is =l=čʰǝnʔ 'to be warm / to be hot' [Kari 1994: 45, 506] (not quoted in [Tuttle 2009]), which is also applicable to objects and weather; cf. the available examples: "it is warm to me", "when it starts to turn warm, they set traps for muskrats", "soup is hot", "the beaver's tail got hot" [Kari 1994: 45-46]. Semantic difference between (=)ðǝɬ and =l=čʰǝnʔ is unclear, but it seems that =l=čʰǝnʔ is a more rare term.
Distinct from =(l)=kʊnʔ 'to be lukewarm' [Kari 1994: 117, 506]. Cf. Kari's examples: "water is lukewarm", "it is warm out", "we go for birch when it is getting warm", "it became spring weather".
Central Carrier:=z̪ʌl1
Poser 1998/2013: 986, 1224, 1266. Also with the t-classifier: =c̪ʌl < *=t=z̪ʌl. Paradigm: =z̪ʌl [stative imperf.] / =z̪iɬ [continuative imperf.]. Glossed as 'to be warm' in [Poser 1998/2013: 1224]. Available examples show that this verb is normally applied to objects meaning 'to be warm'. Cf. the found examples: "They warm the child with their breath" [[Poser 1998/2013: 175], "The water is warm [has been warmed up]" [Poser 1998/2013: 316], "I am getting warm, warming up" [Poser 1998/2013: 332], "The coffee is warm" [Poser 1998/2013: 363], "Stuart Lake is warm" [Poser 1998/2013: 451], "It is warm here" [Poser 1998/2013: 540].
Distinct from the verb =l=ɣʷʌs ~ =l=ɣaz ~ =l=wʌs 'to be hot / to be warm' [Poser 1998/2013: 757, 986, 1220, 1254; Antoine et al. 1974: 337] (in [Antoine et al. 1974] sometimes transcribed as =l=wʌs for Poser's =l=ɣʷʌs). The basic meaning of this verb is proposed as 'to be hot' in [Poser 1998/2013: 1220]. Examples show that its usual meanings are 'to be hot (of objects)' and 'to be warm/hot (of weather, body condition)'.
Cf. the available examples where =l=ɣʷʌs ~ =l=ɣaz ~ =l=wʌs is glossed as 'warm': "Warm up the tea for me" [Poser 1998/2013: 75], "My mittens are very nice, and warm" [Poser 1998/2013: 76], "When you leave milk in a warm place for a long time it will turn sour" [Poser 1998/2013: 156], "When the sky cleared it warmed up and the leaves came out" [Poser 1998/2013: 163], "Down south it is still warm so they are going around naked" [Poser 1998/2013: 217], "The ice is melting whenever it gets warm" [Poser 1998/2013: 309], "When it warms up there comes to be slush on the ice" [Poser 1998/2013: 329], "you feel warm" [Poser 1998/2013: 354], "He is warm because he wears many clothes when going outside" [Poser 1998/2013: 380], "The sun was very warm" [Poser 1998/2013: 380], "He is sitting in the shade because it is too warm" [Poser 1998/2013: 425], "When it is warm a carcass bloats quickly" [Poser 1998/2013: 471], "Mother bought me a nice, warm blanket" [Poser 1998/2013: 501], "He is sitting in the shade because it is too warm" [Poser 1998/2013: 539].
And the examples where =l=ɣʷʌs ~ =l=ɣaz ~ =l=wʌs is glossed as 'hot': "He asked for cold water because he was hot" [Poser 1998/2013: 99], "He is sweating because he is hot" [Poser 1998/2013: 354], "The sun is very hot in the summer" [Poser 1998/2013: 420], "The coffee is hot", "The cup is hot" [Poser 1998/2013: 380], "He is bathing because the weather is hot" [Poser 1998/2013: 473], "It is hot here" [Poser 1998/2013: 540], "He is splashing water on the car because it is hot" [Poser 1998/2013: 570], "He soaks the snowshoes in hot water and then frames them" [Poser 1998/2013: 581].
Distinct from the more rare verb =l=kʰʷʌn 'to warm with fire' [Poser 1998/2013: 986, 1256] < kʰʷʌn 'fire' q.v.
Koyukon:=l=kʼuχ3
Jetté & Jones 2000: 318, 1049; Jones 1978: 81, 187. Verb with polysemy: 'to be warm / to be hot', applicable to both objects (including liquids) and weather.
Distinct from specific =lǝɬ 'to be hot', applicable exclusively to liquids [Jetté & Jones 2000: 392].
In the Central and Upper dialects, the rare verb =l=kʰǝnʔ 'to be hot (of objects)' is also attested [Jetté & Jones 2000: 295].
Degexit'an:=ðǝɬ1
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1976: 11; Chapman 1914: 219. This looks like the most basic and frequent verb (with polysemy: 'to be hot / to be warm'), applicable to both objects and weather. Cf. the examples: "she wet it with warm water" [Chapman 1914: 128], "so that he was naked. Then she placed warm water by him, and shaved deer-fat into it. Then she bathed him" [Chapman 1914: 145], "The soup is hot" [Taff et al. 2007]. Also of weather and atmosphere: "It is starting to get warm outside", "I'm warm", "Put on your warm sweater", "It's really hot outside" [Taff et al. 2007].
Distinct from the verb =ɬ=čʼʊχ 'to be hot (of objects)', attested in two examples: "The woman was angry, and threw hot ashes into his eyes with a ladle" [Chapman 1914: 118], "Is the kettle boiling?" (i.e., "Is the kettle warm?") [Taff et al. 2007].
Distinct from =qʰǝnʔ 'to be warm' [Kari 1976: 42], no examples found.
Distinct from =qǝŋʔ 'to be lukewarm' [Kari 1976: 22], no examples found.
Sarsi:=zíɬ1
Li 1930b: 22; Nanagusja 1996a: 129. Verbal stem: 'to be warm'. Paradigm: =zíɬ [imperf.] / =zìːl [perf.] 'to be warm'. This is the only expression for 'warm' found in the sources, apparently applicable to both objects and weather, although the available examples are not very informative: "There is a warm breeze" [Cook 1984: 168], "I'm warm" [Nanagusja 1996b: 150], "It is hot" [Nanagusja 1996b: 313], "It's warm" (weather) [Nanagusja 1996b: 316].
Distinct from =s=kʼís 'to be hot' [Li 1930b: 22], which is apparently the general expression for 'hot' applicable to both objects and weather, although the examples are not very informative either: "It's hot. I'd like some ice cream" [Nanagusja 1996b: 312], "It's hot. Wipe sweat from brow" [Nanagusja 1996b: 356], "You are hot" [Li 1930b: 7].
Distinct from =tī ~ =tīn- [imperf.] / =tìːn [perf.] 'to be hot', applicable specifically to weather [Li 1930b: 18; Hoijer 1956: 223].
Distinct from =ƛʼīːž 'to be very hot' [Li 1930b: 27].
Sapir & Golla 2001: 774; Golla 1996: 105. Glossed as 'water (for drinking)', although actually this form represents the generic term for 'water'. A descriptive formation < *tʰaː=čʼi=t=naːn-i (thus [Sapir & Golla 2001]; in [Golla 1996], the form *tʰaʔ=ti=naːn-i is proposed, which seems less preferable), literally 'what one drinks through the water' with the verb =naːn 'to drink' q.v. and the directional prefix tʰaː= 'into the water', for which see below. Cf. also recent compounds like xonʔ-tʰaʔnaːn 'alcohol', literally 'fire + water' [Golla 1996: 3], tʰaʔnaːn-ɬiʍin 'coffee', literally 'water + black' [Golla 1996: 19].
The old root tʰoː is retained as tʰoː 'body of water, river, ocean' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 789; Golla 1996: 105], possr=tʰo-ʔ 'juice, sap' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 789; Golla 1996: 51], the verb =tʰoː 'to extend, reach (of water)' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 789] and as an element of various compounds like tʰoː-tiŋ 'beach, shore, at the river' (literally 'water-place') [Sapir & Golla 2001: 789; Golla 1996: 9], tʰo-sqʼacʼ 'spring (of cold water), cold water' < *tʰoː-si-qʼacʼ 'water + cold' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 789; Golla 1996: 19], etc.
The ablauted variant of tʰoː functions as the verbal directional prefixes tʰaː- 'into the water (and out again), moving through the water' etc. [Sapir & Golla 2001: 784; Golla 1970: 126-127].
For other terms with the semantics of 'water', see [Golla 1996: 105].
Mattole:taʔ=naːh ~ taʔ=naːn1
Li 1930: 128. Derived from the verb =naːh / =naːn 'to drink' q.v., literally 'what one drinks' (see notes on Hupa).
The old root tʰoː ~ tʰeː 'water' is retained in such compounds as pi-tʰˈo-ʔ 'juice', possr=naʔ-tʰˈo-ʔ 'tears' [Li 1930: 128] (with naʔ 'eye' q.v.), the verb =tʰo-ʔ [perf.] 'to move (said of water)' [Li 1930: 91], the substantive tʰeː-ɣ 'otter' [Li 1930: 128] (lit. 'in the water') and the verbal prefix teh- 'in(to) water' [Li 1930: 57] (with the regular deaspiration tʰ > t in prefix syllables [Li 1930: 31]).
The generic term for 'water' or at least specifically for 'sweet water that is good for drinking' is not documented in available sources. In [Hoijer 1956: 223], the generic term is quoted as tʰoː-, although the hyphen sign should indicate that tʰoː was extracted by Hoijer from certain compounds. In [Hoijer 1973: 55], independent tʰoː is translated as 'flowing water; river; water in nature'. Two attested compounds with tʰoː prove, however, that tʰoː was indeed the generic Galice term for 'water' at least until recently: tʰoː-sasaɬ 'hot water' (with =saɬ 'to be hot, warm') [Hoijer 1973: 55], possr=taː-tʰoː 'tears' (lit. 'eye water' with possr=taː- 'eye' q.v.) [Landar 1977: 294].
Cf. the ablaut variants of the same root: tʰaː- 'river, water' in tʰaː-niːsat 'in the middle of the river' [Hoijer 1973: 54]; tʰa- in compounds like tʰa-paʔ 'thirst', tʰa-l-kʰat 'water for domestic use', etc. [Hoijer 1973: 54].
Upper Inlet Tanaina:piɬni3
Kari 2007: 121, 360; Kari 1977: 113.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:miɬni3
Kari 2007: 121, 360; Kari 1977: 113.
Inland Tanaina:vinɬni ~ minɬni3
Kari 2007: 121, 360; Kari 1977: 113; Wassillie 1979: 109.
In the Lime Village subdialect, the loanword ǝma can also be used for 'water' [Kari 2007: 121; Kari 1977: 113; Wassillie 1979: 109] < Central Alaskan Yupik ǝmǝq 'water'.
Iliamna Tanaina:vinɬni ~ minɬni3
Kari 2007: 121, 360; Kari 1977: 113.
TFN_NOTES:
Seldovia dialect: wiɬni 'water'.
The various dialectal forms piɬni, miɬni, vinɬni, minɬni, wiɬni (all glossed as 'water, drinking water' in [Kari 2007: 121]) are obviously related, originating from a common protoform, but the initial shape and the source of the whole expression are unclear.
It is tentatively proposed in [Kari 1996: 60] that the underlying verbal form was *vǝ=i=ni=ɬ=lǝn-i, literally 'that which is flowing in it' with the verbal root =ɬǝn 'to flow' (nominalized with help of the relative suffix -i) and the 3rd p. object exponent pǝ=/vǝ=/wǝ= (the quality of the labial depends on the dialect). Actually, the underlying form should be even more complicated: *vǝ=yǝ=i=ni=ɬ=lǝn-i, since pǝ= is normally used with either non-3rd p. subject or the non-human subject exponent yǝ= [Tenenbaum 1978: 74; Boraas 2010: 123]. Kari's analysis cannot be excluded, but the assumed contraction is too irregular (the reduction of the root vowel =lǝn > =ln is especially abnormal), so we prefer to treat the discussed forms for 'water' as an unanalyzable formation, the so-called "elite replacement" (theoretically it could reflect the remains of a substrate language).
The old root for 'water' is retained in fossilized expressions such as tʰu-čʰǝn 'brackish water', literally 'smelly water' (all the dialects) [Kari 2007: 121], Inland tʰu-zǝɬ 'hot springs', literally 'hot/warm water' [Kari 2007: 122] and so on. It is also attested as the verbal incorporated morphemes tʰu- 'water (in general)', tʰa- '(under) water', tʰi- 'water (usually in container)' (see [Tenenbaum 1978: 168 f.; Boraas 2010: 126] for Inland and Outer Inlet data) and the verbal directional adverbial prefix tʰu- 'into or onto the surface of the water; up from the water's edge', tʰa- 'submerged in water' (see [Tenenbaum 1978: 185 f.; Boraas 2010: 129] for Inland and Outer Inlet data).
Central Ahtena:tʰuː2
Kari 1990: 337, 619; Kari & Buck 1975: 77; Smelcer 2010: 96.
Western Ahtena: tʰuː [Kari 1990: 337, 619; Kari & Buck 1975: 77; Smelcer 2010: 96].
Mentasta Ahtena:tʰuː2
Kari 1990: 337, 619; Kari & Buck 1975: 77; Smelcer 2010: 96.
AHT_NOTES:
Polysemy: 'water / juice / soup, broth' (in the meanings 'juice; soup', the possessed form possr=tʰu-ʔ is used).
Cf. the ablaut variants of the same root, used as the first element of compounds or adverbially: tʰa- 'water; into water' [Kari 1990: 324], tʰeː-, tʰe-, tʰi- 'underwater' [Kari 1990: 327].
Arnold et al. 2009: 287; Holton 2000: 348; Brean & Milanowski 1979: 13; McRoy 1973: 7; Shinen 1958: 14.
Cf. the ablaut variants of the same root, used as the incorporated element: tʰà- 'water' [Holton 2000: 258].
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):tʰuː2
Milanowski 2009: 24, 88.
Northway: tʰuː 'water' [Milanowski 2007: 18].
Scottie Creek: tʰuː 'water' [John 1997: 48].
Lower Tanana (Minto):tʰu2
Kari 1994: 247, 507; Tuttle 2009: 220. In compounds, the variant tʰʌ- is used [Kari 1994: 240; Tuttle 2009: 220].
Central Carrier:tʰu2
Poser 1998/2013: 468, 989; Poser 2011a: 232; Antoine et al. 1974: 218, 337. Cf. the variant tʰa- 'water', used in verbal incorporation or as the first element of nominal compounds [Poser 1998/2013: 446].
Koyukon:tʰuː2
Jetté & Jones 2000: 533, 1050; Jones 1978: 188. In compounds and incorporated forms, the variants tʰoː- 'water' and tʰaː- 'in water' are used [Jetté & Jones 2000: 501].
Degexit'an:tʰeː2
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 40; Chapman 1914: 227. Attested in both dialects, according to [Kari 1978].
In the Kuskokwim dialect, it competes with the form ǝmaːʔ 'water' [Kari 1978: 40], borrowed from Yupik ǝmǝq 'water'.
Sapir & Golla 2001: 776, 779; Golla 1996: 105; Golla 1970: 236. As proposed in [Sapir & Golla 2001], neheː originates < *noh-eː with secondary vowel assimilation (the final element -eː is unclear, however). The same morpheme constitutes the prefixal possessive pronoun noh- with polysemy: ‘our / your (pl.)’ [Golla 1970: 212], 1 & 2 pl. object verbal prefix -noh- [Golla 1970: 103]. But different morphemes are used for subject verbal prefixes: 1 pl. -ti-, 2 pl. -oh- [Golla 1970: 69].
Li 1930: 133. Polysemy: 'we / you (pl.)'. This looks like a synchronic compound of noh *'we / you (pl.)' + niŋ 'thou' q.v. The same morpheme constitutes the prefixal possessive pronoun noh- 'our / your (pl.)' [Li 1930: 133], 1 & 2 pl. object verbal prefix -noh- [Li 1930: 65]. But different morphemes are used for subject verbal prefixes: 1 pl. -ti-, 2 pl. -oh- [Li 1930: 69].
Bear River dialect: the pronoun 'we' is not attested. Cf. the pronoun nehe 'you (pl.)' [Goddard 1929: 322] - perhaps this is actually the 1 pl. pronoun 'we', incorrectly glossed by Goddard.
Kato:neh-iŋ1
Goddard 1912: 33. Cf. noːh-iŋ 'you (pl.)'; the same morpheme constitutes the prefixal possessive pronoun noːh- with polysemy: 'our / your (pl.)' [Goddard 1912: 21].
Taldash Galice:tawa1
Hoijer 1956: 223. Originates from *nawa. The same morpheme in the prefixal possessive pronoun toː- [before C] / taw- [before V] / naw- [before Ṽ] with polysemy: 'our / your (pl.)' [Hoijer 1966: 321-322] (< *naw- or the like), 1 & 2 pl. indirect & direct object verbal prefix toː- [before C] / taw- [before V] / naw- [before Ṽ] [Hoijer 1966: 323, 324].
The independent pronoun for 2 pl. 'you' is not documented.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:na-y-na1
Kari 2007: 65. In [Kari 1977: 80] quoted as na-na.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:na-na1
Kari 2007: 65; Kari 1977: 80.
Inland Tanaina:na-yi1
Kari 2007: 65; Kari 1977: 80.
Iliamna Tanaina:na-yi1
Kari 2007: 65; Kari 1977: 80.
TFN_NOTES:
Suffixal -yi is synchronically unanalyzable (cf. the same suffix in the 2nd p. pl. pronoun below), but suffixal -na synchronically coincides with the plural relative nominalizer -na 'the people that' [Kari 2007: 329; Boraas 2010: 17].
The same morpheme in the prefixal possessive pronoun na- 'our' [Kari 2007: 65]. On the contrary, the 1 pl. object verbal prefix is -tna- (na- in the initial position) [Lovick 2005: 47; Tenenbaum 1978: 73; Boraas 2010: 123], for the specific morphophonological behavior of -tna- see [Boraas 2010: 146]. It is proposed in [Tenenbaum 1978: 73] that at least the variant -tna- could be related to the substantive tna 'people' (see notes on 'man') and the nominal suffix -tna which denotes plural people.
Cf. the independent 2 pl. pronoun 'you (pl.)': Upper Inlet & Outer Inlet χǝn-yi, Inland n-χin, Iliamna χin. The prefixal possessive pronoun 'your (pl.)': Upper Inlet, Outer Inlet, Iliamna χ-, Inland n-χ- [Kari 2007: 65; Kari 1977: 80].
Central Ahtena:neː-ne1
Kari 1990: 35, 295.
Lower Ahtena: neː-ne [Kari 1990: 35, 295].
Western Ahtena: neː-ne [Kari 1990: 35, 295].
Mentasta Ahtena:neː-n1
Kari 1990: 35, 295. Regular reduction of final -e.
AHT_NOTES:
Final -ne is the plural human relative suffix [Kari 1990: 295].
The same morpheme is present in the prefixal possessive pronoun ne- 'our', 1 pl. object verbal prefix -ne-; etymologically distinct from the 1 pl. subject verbal prefix -cʼ- [Kari 1990: 35, 57, 295].
Cf. the independent 2 pl. pronoun 'you (pl.)': Central, Lower & Westernχan-yuː, Mentasta nu-χon. The prefixal possessive pronoun 'your (pl.)': Central & Western nʍ- / unʍ-, Lower ʍ-, Mentasta nuh- [Kari 1990: 35].
Dogrib:kó-xĩ́2
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 47; Marinakis et al. 2007: 40. There are several documented pronominal forms for 'we, us' (apparently none of them distinguish between the dual and plural number):
2) káː-xĩ́ 'we, us' (dual./pl.?) [Marinakis et al. 2007: 40]; apparently a rare form, not quoted in [Saxon & Siemens 1996; Saxon & Siemens n.d.].
3) kʰĩ́ 'we, us' (dual./pl.?) [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 57; Marinakis et al. 2007: 40]. It is specified in [Marinakis et al. 2007: 40] as rare.
4) xĩ́ 'us' (also 'we'?) [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 121; Marinakis et al. 2007: 40]. It is specified in [Marinakis et al. 2007: 40] as rare.
5) ná-xĩ́, which basic meaning is 'you (dual., pl.)' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 75; Marinakis et al. 2007: 40]. According to [Saxon & Siemens 1996; Marinakis et al. 2007], some speakers can also use ná-xĩ́ for 'we, us (dual., pl.)'.
It is likely that the most common pronoun of the 1st p. dual./pl. is kó-xĩ́ (it is quoted as the basic form in [Marinakis et al. 2007: 40]). In the only two found instances for the independent pronoun 'we, us (pl.)', kó-xĩ́ and ná-xĩ́ are attested: "We (kó-xĩ́) don't live nowadays like the oldtimers did" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 19], "We (ná-xĩ́) painted the house ourselves" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 120].
The same morpheme ko is present in the prefixal possessive pronoun kó- 'our (pl.)', 1st dual./pl. object verbal prefix -kò- [Saxon & Siemens 1996: xiii; Marinakis et al. 2007: 39, 128].
For the dual. possessive 'our', the 2nd p. pronoun is used: ná-xí- 'our (dual.) / your (dual., pl.)' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: xiii].
Different morphemes are used as subject verbal prefixes: 1st dual. subject -wìt- ('we'), 1st pl. subject -cʼé- ('we' or indefinite 'someone')[Marinakis et al. 2007: 114; Coleman 1976: 21].
North Slavey (Hare):ràxè-nĩ̀1
Rice 1989: 253; Hoijer 1956: 222. Hoijer quotes the 19th c. archaic variant nàxè-nĩ̀. Polysemy: 'we / you (pl.)'. Final -nĩ is a suffix modifying personal and some other pronouns.
Tanacross:nèː-x̬òn1
Arnold et al. 2009: 288. In [Holton 2000: 278], transcribed as nèː-xónʔ. The same morpheme is present in the prefixal possessive pronoun nèː- 'our', 1st pl. object verbal prefix -nèː- [Holton 2000: 145, 248].
For 1st pl. subject, the impersonal subject prefix -cʼè- is used [Holton 2000: 199, 243].
Cf. the 2nd pl. pronouns: independent nùh-xòn 'you' [Arnold et al. 2009: 300] (in [Holton 2000: 278], transcribed as nùh-xónʔ), prefixal possessive nùh- 'your', 2nd pl. object verbal prefix -nùh- [Holton 2000: 145, 248]. Etymologically distinct from the 2nd pl. subject verbal prefix -àh- [Holton 2000: 199].
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):ndeː-xon1
Milanowski 2009: 82. The same morpheme is present in the prefixal possessive pronoun ndeː(ʔ)- 'our' [Milanowski 2009: 9].
Cf. the 2nd pl. pronouns: independent ndɯh-xon 'you' [Milanowski 2009: 82], prefixal possessive ndɯh(ʔ)- 'your' [Milanowski 2009: 9].
Northway: ndeːxon 'we' [Milanowski 2007: 15].
Lower Tanana (Minto):tǝna-xʊn̥1
Kari 1994: 138, 196. It is suggested in [Kari 1994: 138] that both tǝna-xʊn̥ and simple xʊn̥ can be used as the independent pronoun 'we'.
The same morpheme tǝna- is present in the prefixal possessive pronoun tǝna- 'our', 1st pl. direct object verbal prefix -tǝna- [Kari 1994: 196]. Although for 1st pl. subject, the impersonal subject prefix -ʼǝ- is used [Kari 1994: 280].
Initial tǝna- formally coincides with the substantive tǝna 'man / person' q.v.
Cf. the 2nd pl. pronouns: independent yʊx-ʊ-yi ~ yʊx-ʊn-yi (both < *yʊx-xʊn-yi with the same xʊn̥ as in 'we') 'you', prefixal possessive yʊx- ~ nʊx- (with unclear n-) 'your', 2nd pl. direct object verbal prefix yʊx- [Kari 1994: 343].
Central Carrier:xʷeni3
Poser 1998/2013: 527; Antoine et al. 1974: 351.
A different morpheme is present in the prefixal possessive pronoun ne- 'our', 1st pl. direct object verbal prefix -ne- [Antoine et al. 1974: 349, 350]. For 1st pl. subject, the prefix -cʼʌ- is used [Antoine et al. 1974: 350].
Cf. the 2nd pl. pronouns: independent noh-ni 'you', prefixal possessive noh- 'your', 2nd pl. direct object verbal prefix noh- [Poser 1998/2013: 366; Antoine et al. 1974: 349-351].
Koyukon:χon̥3
Jetté & Jones 2000: 271, 805; Jones & Kwaraceius 1997: 4.
A different morpheme is found in the prefixal possessive pronoun tǝnaː- 'our', 1st pl. direct object verbal prefix -tǝnaː- [Jetté & Jones 2000: 428, 805]. For 1st pl. subject, the prefix -cʼǝ- is used [Jetté & Jones 2000: 805].
Pronominal tǝnaː- formally coincides with the substantive tǝnaː 'man / person' q.v.
Cf. the 2nd pl. pronouns: independent yoχ-on̥ (< yoχ-χon̥) 'you', prefixal possessive yoχ- 'your', 2nd pl. direct object verbal prefix yoχ-, 2nd pl. subject verbal prefix -oχ- [Jetté & Jones 2000: 721, 805].
Degexit'an:χʊn̥3
Kari 1978: 25. Two independent pronouns meaning 'we' are quoted in [Kari 1978] without additional details: χʊn̥ and tǝnaː-χʊn̥. We have to treat them as synonyms.
The prefixal possessive pronoun 'our' is tǝnaː- [Kari 1978: 25]. For 1st pl. subject, the prefix -ʼǝ- is used [Hargus 2000].
Cf. the 2nd pl. pronouns: independent yǝχ-ʊn̥ (< yǝχ-χʊn̥) 'you', prefixal possessive yǝχ- 'your' [Kari 1978: 25].
Sarsi:nāá-ní1
Cook 1984: 62; Hoijer 1956: 222. Final -ní is a morpheme common for all independent personal pronouns.
Cf. the 2nd pl. independent pronoun nīhí-ní 'you' [Cook 1984: 62].
Cf. grammatical exponents which may not discriminate between the 1st and 2nd person: the prefixal possessive pronoun nìhi- 'our / your', 1st pl. subject verbal prefix -aat- (opposed to 2nd pl. -as-), 1st/2nd pl. object verbal prefix -nihi- ~ -naa- [Hoijer & Joël 1963: 66; Cook 1984: 193, 197].
NUMBER:95
WORD:we
Hupa:
Mattole:
Kato:
Taldash Galice:
Upper Inlet Tanaina:
Outer Inlet Tanaina:
Inland Tanaina:
Iliamna Tanaina:
Central Ahtena:
Mentasta Ahtena:
Dogrib:
North Slavey (Hare):
Tanacross:
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):
Lower Tanana (Minto):xʊn̥3
Kari 1994: 138.
Central Carrier:
Koyukon:
Degexit'an:tǝnaː-χʊn̥4
Kari 1978: 25.
Sarsi:
NUMBER:96
WORD:what
Hupa:tay-t ~ tiy-t1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 747; Golla 1996: 106; Golla 1996a: 380; Golla 1970: 237. The morpheme -t < *-ti is a general pronominal interrogative element, see examples in [Golla 1970: 237; Golla 1996a: 380]. Cf. the cognate indefinite pronoun tay-ʍoʔ ~ tiy-ʍoʔ 'something' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 747; Golla 1996a: 380; Golla 1970: 237], formed with another general enclitic.
Mattole:tˈiː-toʔ1
Li 1930: 134. The final -toʔ is a general pronominal interrogative element, present in all the interrogative pronouns that are listed in [Li 1930: 134].
Bear River dialect: not attested.
Kato:tiː-čiː1
Goddard 1912: 34. The final -čiː is a general pronominal interrogative element.
Taldash Galice:ti1
Landar 1977: 295 No. 83. Attested in the phrase "What do you call this?".
Upper Inlet Tanaina:ya-ta2
Kari 2007: 343; Kari 1977: 282.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:ya-ti2
Kari 2007: 343; Kari 1977: 282.
Inland Tanaina:ya-ta2
Kari 2007: 343; Kari 1977: 282; Lovick 2005: 208.
Iliamna Tanaina:ya-ta2
Kari 2007: 343; Kari 1977: 282.
TFN_NOTES:
We treat ya-ta (Outer Inlet ya-ti) as a historical compound (for the first element ya-, cf. ye- ‘3rd p. subject/object [frequently non-human]' [Boraas 2010: 122, 123]). The vowel discrepancy between Outer Inlet -ti and -ta in the other dialects is abnormal (cf. the rhyming pronoun pa-ta / va-ta / Outer Inlet pa-ti-n 'who?' q.v. with the same discrepancy).
Central Ahtena:yi-ti2
Kari 1990: 440, 621.
Lower Ahtena: yi-ti [Kari 1990: 440, 621].
Western Ahtena: yi-ti [Kari 1990: 440, 621].
Mentasta Ahtena:yi-ti2
Kari 1990: 440, 621.
AHT_NOTES:
We treat yi-ti as a historical compound (for the first element, cf. yiː 'it, 3rd p. non-human' [Kari 1990: 435]). This seems to be the default interrogative 'what?', cf. the following examples: "What don't you know?", "What do you crave?", "What are you looking at?", "What are you talking about?", "What is it?", "What are you crying about?" [Kari 1990: 149, 263, 440].
The second interrogative pronoun, attested with the meaning 'what?' is n-cʼe 'how?, what?' [Kari 1990: 404], although this word should be rather treated as 'how?', not 'what?' per se (cf. the examples, where n-cʼe is glossed as 'what' by Kari: "What is he doing?", "what do you think (about it)?", "what did you do to it?" [Kari 1990: 84, 305, 426, 458]).
Dogrib:á=yìː2
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 6, 229; Marinakis et al. 2007: 162. Used with all numbers? Apparently áyìː 'what?' and ámèː 'who?' q.v. are to be analyzed as á=yìː, á=mèː with the common desemanticized element á-.
North Slavey (Hare):yè-rì ~ ʔà=yè-rì2
Rice 1989: 257. Final -ri (< *-ti) is an enclitic element modifying demonstrative and some other pronouns; initial ʔa- is a proclitic element optionally modifying interrogative pronouns.
Tanacross:tíː1
Arnold et al. 2009: 291; Holton 2000: 280.
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):tiː1
Milanowski 2009: 15, 88.
Lower Tanana (Minto):tǝ-ya1
Kari 1994: 72, 508; Tuttle 2009: 221. It should be noted that in the light of the parallel pronoun tǝ=ba 'who' q.v., the morphemes =ya and =ba can be considered as meaningful elements from the synchronic point of view, whereas tǝ= is an additional interrogative exponent.
Central Carrier:ti1
Poser 1998/2013: 123, 992; Antoine et al. 1974: 79. Apparently this is the basic interrogative pronoun 'what?'. Cf. some examples: "What is it called?', "What is he eating?", "I wonder what he is eating", "What are you doing?", "He is wondering what I want" [Poser 1998/2013: 123].
A second candidate is (probably more marginal) tača 'what?' [Poser 1998/2013: 110, 992; Antoine et al. 1974: 73] with the examples: "What does he mean?", "What do you think?" [Poser 1998/2013: 110].
Distinct from n=tai 'what?, which?' [Poser 1998/2013: 332; Antoine et al. 1974: 164, 354].
Koyukon:kǝn ~ kǝn-iː3
Jetté & Jones 2000: 187, 1052; Jones & Kwaraceius 1997: 4; Jones 1978: 191. Final -iː is the non-human relativizer 'the one that, the thing that' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 7]. Cf. the example: "What do you want? I want water".
In the Upper dialect (Toklat-Bearpaw subdialect) two pronouns for 'what?' coexist: inherited čǝn (< kǝn) and borrowed tǝyaː (< Lower Tanana tǝ-ya 'what?') [Jetté & Jones 2000: 137].
Degexit'an:kaːn3
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 101. This is apparently the basic interrogative pronoun 'what?'. Cf. some examples: "What's so funny?", "What grows there?", "What do you hear?", "What are you hollering for?", "What do I smell?", "What's he talking about?" [Taff et al. 2007], "What is this?", "Which one is this?" [Kari 1978: 101].
The second candidate is the frequent pronoun n=taː-ʒ 'what?, how?' [Kari 1978: 102; Chapman 1914: 216], but it seems that in the majority of examples it can be translated as 'how?' or 'which?'. Cf. some instances: "What did she say?", "What happened to him?", "What kind (n=taːʒ tǝŋǝtʼaːy) do you have?", "What's the news?", "What's it doing outside? (i.e.: What's the weather like?)" [Taff et al. 2007], "What are you doing?", "How far is it?" [Kari 1978: 102].
Sarsi:tì-tʼá1
Cook 1984: 60. Final -tʼa is found in some other pronouns, e.g., ƛʰàá-tʼá-à 'all' q.v., xà-tʼà-á 'what (kind)' [Cook 1984: 60].
Rice 1978: 221, 442, 552. Verbal form 'it is white', initial tè- is the adjectival prefix [Rice 1989: 617], for the desemanticized verbal suffix -e see[Rice 1989: 816].
Distinct from the verb =kà which is quoted in [Hoijer 1956: 222] as =kay '(to be) white', but in modern language =kà means 'to be holly, pure / to come (of daylight)' [Rice 1978: 220, 430], although the old meaning is retained in =h=kà 'to make white' [Rice 1978: 220, 430] and =t=kà 'to become white' [Rice 1978: 222, 430].
Tanacross:t=è=l=kèy̥1
Arnold et al. 2009: 293; Holton 2000: 178, 353; Brean & Milanowski 1979: 22; McRoy 1973: 16; Shinen 1958: 18. Consists of the verb =l=kèy̥ 'to be white' with the adjectival/gender exponent t= [Holton 2000: 237 ff.].
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):t=e=l=kay ~ t=e=l=kay̥1
Milanowski 2009: 15, 42, 72. Formed from the verb =l=kay̥ 'to be white'.
Kari 1994: 172, 509; Tuttle 2009: 225. Verbal stem: 'to be white'. Paradigm: =l=kʼʊƛ [neuter imperf.] / =l=kʼʌl [transitional imperf.] / =l=kʼʌƛ [transitional perf.]. Also functions as the noun-like adjective kʼʊƛ-aʔ 'white'.
Central Carrier:=ɬ=yʌl ~ =l=yʌl3
Poser 1998/2013: 995, 1224, 1265; Poser 2011a: 237; Antoine et al. 1974: 241, 339.
Koyukon:=l=qʼoɬ2
Jetté & Jones 2000: 369, 1054; Jones 1978: 193. Verbal stem: 'to be white'. Paradigm: =qʼoɬ [neuter imperf.] / =qʼoːɬ [momentaneous imperf.] / =qʼoːƛ [momentaneous perf.]. Also functions as the noun-like adjective qʼoɬ-ǝʔ 'white'.
Degexit'an:=qʼʊɬ2
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 55; Kari 1976: 44; Chapman 1914: 230. Verbal stem: 'to be white'.
Sarsi:=V=kɒ́y ~ =V=káy1
Li 1930b: 21; Hoijer 1956: 223; Cook 1984: 166. Apparently this is the basic Sarsi verb for 'to be white'. Cf. some examples: "I'm white" [Cook 1984: 166], "It's white" [Cook 1984: 176], "white men (= people with white flesh)" [Hoijer & Joël 1963: 75], "All (the horses) were white [...] Its mane was white" [Goddard 1915: 229], "Its head is white" [Goddard 1915: 265].
Distinct from =V=kʰùːn 'to be white' [Li 1930b: 21], not specified semantically, without examples.
Distinct from =V=kʼɒ́ːl 'to be white' [Li 1930b: 22] with the only example "It (hair) is white" [Cook 1984: 166].
Distinct from =V=kúš 'to be very white', applied to cloth, paper, etc. [Li 1930b: 21; Cook 1984: 163, 166].
NUMBER:98
WORD:who
Hupa:tan-t1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 746; Golla 1996: 107; Golla 1996a: 380; Golla 1970: 237. In [Golla 1996], transcribed as tun-t. For the general pronominal interrogative element -t see notes on 'what'. Cf. the cognate indefinite pronoun taŋ-ʍoʔ 'someone' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 746; Golla 1996a: 380; Golla 1970: 237], formed with another general enclitic.
Mattole:tˈan-toʔ1
Li 1930: 134. The final -toʔ is a general pronominal interrogative element, present in all the interrogative pronouns that are listed in [Li 1930: 134].
Bear River dialect: not attested.
Kato:tan-čiː1
Goddard 1912: 34. The final -čiː is a general pronominal interrogative element.
Taldash Galice:
Not attested.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:pa-ta2
Kari 2007: 343; Kari 1977: 284.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:pa-ti-n2
Kari 2007: 343; Kari 1977: 284. Final -n is the human singulative exponent -ǝn [Kari 2007: 329; Boraas 2010: 17, 52].
Inland Tanaina:va-ta2
Kari 2007: 343; Kari 1977: 284; Lovick 2005: 208.
Iliamna Tanaina:va-ta2
Kari 2007: 343; Kari 1977: 284.
TFN_NOTES:
We treat pa-ta / va-ta (Outer Inlet pa-ti) as a historical compound. The vowel discrepancy between Outer Inlet -ti and -ta in the other dialects is abnormal (cf. the rhyming pronoun ya-ta / Outer Inlet ya-ti 'what?' q.v. with the same discrepancy).
Central Ahtena:pe-te2
Kari 1990: 103, 621.
Lower Ahtena: pe-te [Kari 1990: 103, 621].
Western Ahtena: pe-te [Kari 1990: 103, 621].
Mentasta Ahtena:pe-te2
Kari 1990: 103, 621.
AHT_NOTES:
We treat pe-te as a historical compound.
Dogrib:á=mèː ~ á=mìː2
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 5, 230; Marinakis et al. 2007: 162. Sg. form; dual. & pl. form is ámìː-kʰé. For initial á-, cf. notes on á=yìː 'what?'.
North Slavey (Hare):mè-nĩ̀ ~ ʔà=mè-nĩ̀ ~ ʔà=mè-n2
Rice 1989: 257. Initial ʔa- is a proclitic element optionally modifying interrogative pronouns; final -nĩ is a suffix modifying personal and some other pronouns.
Tanacross:tóː1
Arnold et al. 2009: 293; Holton 2000: 280.
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):toː1
Milanowski 2009: 16, 88.
Lower Tanana (Minto):tǝ-ba1
Kari 1994: 31, 66, 510; Tuttle 2009: 226. See notes on tǝ-ya 'what'.
Central Carrier:m=pe2
Poser 1998/2013: 289, 996; Antoine et al. 1974: 147, 339, 353. Initial m= is a common pronominal element, realized as n= before non-labials, cf., e.g., n=tai 'what?, which?', n=tet 'when?', n=yu-n 'that'.
Koyukon:tǝ-paː1
Jetté & Jones 2000: 76, 1054; Jones & Kwaraceius 1997: 4.
Degexit'an:tǝ-vaː1
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 101; Chapman 1914: 226.
Sarsi:ātáɣá3
Cook 1984: 60. Morphologically unclear.
NUMBER:98
WORD:who
Hupa:
Mattole:
Kato:
Taldash Galice:
Upper Inlet Tanaina:pa=ta1
Kari 2007: 343; Kari 1977: 284.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:pa=ti-n1
Kari 2007: 343; Kari 1977: 284.
Inland Tanaina:va=ta1
Kari 2007: 343; Kari 1977: 284; Lovick 2005: 208.
Iliamna Tanaina:va=ta1
Kari 2007: 343; Kari 1977: 284.
Central Ahtena:pe=te1
Kari 1990: 103, 621.
Mentasta Ahtena:pe=te1
Kari 1990: 103, 621.
Dogrib:
North Slavey (Hare):
Tanacross:
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):
Lower Tanana (Minto):tǝ=ba2
Central Carrier:
Koyukon:tǝ=paː2
Degexit'an:tǝ=vaː2
Sarsi:
NUMBER:99
WORD:woman
Hupa:cʰamehsƛʼoːn1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 734; Golla 1996: 108. In [Golla 1996], transcribed as cʰum... A descriptive formation; as noted by Golla, < *cʰaŋ meː-s-ƛʼoːn-i, literally 'deerskin apron (cʰaŋ) tied (ƛʼoːn) on to her'.
Mattole:yaŋ-kʰˈeh2
Li 1930: 125. As proposed by Li, this form consists of yan- 'female' (probably also attested in yˈaːneʔ 'doe' [Li 1930: 125]) and the suffix -kʰeh; the literal meaning of the entire form is 'female class'.
Bear River dialect: yaŋ-kʰah ~ yi-yaŋ-kʰa 'woman' [Goddard 1929: 322] (the first element yi- of the latter form is probably the indefinite possessive pronoun, for which see notes on 'meat').
Kato:čʼek3
Goddard 1912: 20. Two words for 'woman' are quoted by Goddard: čʼek [Goddard 1912: 20] and čʼyan [Goddard 1912: 24] (the latter looks like a verbal form, currently unanalyzable). Browsing through [Goddard 1909] suggests that čʼek is the default expression for sg. 'woman' (ca. 15×), whereas the form čʼyan-kʰiː is the default expression for pl. 'women' (ca. 10×; the final element -kʰiː is the rare plural exponent [Goddard 1912: 20]). In a couple of cases, čʼek is used for pl. 'women', but the general distribution čʼek [sg.] / čʼyan-kʰiː [pl.] is beyond doubt.
It must be noted that the plain form čʼyan seems very rare in Goddard's texts, if it exists at all, but the suffixed stem čʼyan-c (final -c is the diminutive suffix) is well attested - normally with the specific meaning 'old woman' (sg./pl.).
Taldash Galice:cʼãː-kʰeː4
Hoijer 1973: 59; Hoijer 1956: 223; Landar 1977: 294. Polysemy: 'woman / wife'. The plural form is cʼãːkʰe-yoː 'women' (with the rare plural suffix -yoː [Hoijer 1966: 322 f.]), although there is also an alternative plural form cʼe-yoː 'women, women folks' [Hoijer 1973: 59] with a separate root cʼe-.
Historically, cʼãːkʰeː is the plural form cʼãː-kʰeː *'women' with the fossilized plural suffix -kʰeː (for which see [Hoijer 1966: 322 f.]).
Upper Inlet Tanaina:tǝ=kʼis-ǝn ~ kʼis-ǝn5
Kari 2007: 72, 361.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:kʼis-ǝn5
Kari 2007: 72, 361.
Inland Tanaina:tǝ=ʁ=kʼis-ǝn5
Kari 2007: 72, 361; Wassillie 1979: 113.
Iliamna Tanaina:kʼis-ǝn5
Kari 2007: 72, 361.
TFN_NOTES:
Seldovia dialect: kʼis-ǝn [Kari 2007: 72].
All these forms are glossed with polysemy: 'woman / girl' in [Kari 2007: 72; Wassillie 1979: 44, 113], but only as 'young woman, girl' in [Kari 1977: 88]. There is, however, also a specific term for 'teenage girl': tʼata (all dialects) [Kari 2007: 73; Kari 1977: 88].
The plural form 'women' is kʼis-na (with the corresponding additional prefixes depending on the dialect). Thus, -ǝn and -na are human nominalizers - singulative and plural respectively [Kari 2007: 329; Boraas 2010: 17, 52; Lovick 2005: 28]. Expressions for 'female animal' are the same as for 'woman', but with the non-human nominalizer -i: Upper Inlet tǝ=kʼis-i and so on (with the corresponding additional prefixes depending on the dialect) [Kari 2007: 13].
Residual kʼis looks like a verbal root modified with gender (?) tǝ= and modal ʁ=, although use of the prefixless verbal root is abnormal. The meaning of kʼis is unclear (cf. the Upper Inlet expression for 'veins': tǝl kʼisa, literally 'kʼis of blood' [Kari 2007: 96]).
Western Ahtena: cʼaqʰeː [Kari 1990: 238, 623; Kari & Buck 1975: 54].
Mentasta Ahtena:cʼaqʰeː3
Kari 1990: 238, 623; Kari & Buck 1975: 54.
AHT_NOTES:
An unclear fossilized compound; the plural form 'women' is cʼa-qʰeː-y.
Distinct from possr=ʔaːt (all dialects; Western: possr=ʔaː) with polysemy: 'wife / female (subst.)' [Kari 1990: 78; Kari & Buck 1975: 50].
Distinct from the rare bound root cʼeː / =cʼe-ʔ 'female' [Kari 1990: 403, 405].
Dogrib:cʼèkʰó3
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 105, 231; Marinakis et al. 2007: 163. An unclear fossilized compound. Polysemy: 'woman / girl / queen in cards'.
North Slavey (Hare):cʼékʰù3
Rice 1978: 102, 185. Polysemy: 'woman / girl / queen in cards'. An unclear fossilized compound; for the first element cʼé- 'female' cf. cʼé-yúnéʔ 'old woman' [Rice 1978: 103] (-yúnéʔ 'old' [Rice 1989: 238]), possr=cʼé-wé-ʔ 'embryo skin, womb', lit. 'female's hide' [Rice 1978: 102].
In [Hoijer 1956: 222], the compound cʼe-line 'woman' is quoted, not found in modern sources.
Tanacross:cʼéhxèh3
Arnold et al. 2009: 296; Holton 2000: 348; Brean & Milanowski 1979: 15. An unclear fossilized compound. The plural form is quoted as cʼéhxê-y in [Holton 2000: 158] and as cʼéxèː-y-ìːn in [Arnold et al. 2009: 296] with irregular loss of medial -h- (a typo?); for the rare human plural suffix -y and the more common plural exponent -ìːn, see [Holton 2000: 157 f.].
Distinct from possr=ʔàːt 'wife' [Arnold et al. 2009: 294; Holton 2000: 348].
Kari 1994: 280, 512; Tuttle 2009: 230. Looks like a historical compound. For the first element cf. ʼa which means 'female' in such collocations as possr=ba-ʼa-ʔ 'aunt, mother's brother's wife' (ba '?'), yunʌnaʔ ʼa-ʔ 'white woman' (yunʌnaʔ 'Outside of Alaska') [Kari 1994: 280]. Final -xa is unclear.
Distinct from possr=ʔʌt 'wife / female mate of animal' [Kari 1994: 26, 510].
Central Carrier:cʼekʰe3
Poser 1998/2013: 489, 998; Poser 2011a: 238; Antoine et al. 1974: 229, 339. Plural: cʼekʰu 'women'. Cf. the morpheme -cʼe 'female', the marker of feminine gender of animals [Poser 1998/2013: 488].
Distinct from ʔat 'wife' [Poser 1998/2013: 29].
Koyukon:soːɬ-tʼaːn̥6
Jetté & Jones 2000: 740, 1057; Jones 1978: 196. Polysemy: 'woman / female (of animals)'. The plural form is soːɬtʼǝn 'women' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 544; Jones 1978: 196] with a unique case of reduction aː > ǝ. An unclear formation consisting of soːɬ '?' (not attested beyond this stem) and =tʼaːn̥ which can go back to =t=ʔaːn 'to do', 'to see' or 'to own, dwell' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 544].
A more rare expression for 'woman' is the deverbative expression tǝnaː=qʼoː=ɬ=oː-n̥ [sg.] / tǝnaː=qʼoː=ɬ=taːɬ-nǝ [pl.] [Jetté & Jones 2000: 701], literally 'the one that causes us to walk around' with the suppletive verb =(h)oː [sg.] / =taːɬ [pl.] 'to go' q.v. As explained by Jetté: "Probably because women were the main movers when travelling, while men do the hunting".
Distinct from archaic cʼaː 'woman' retained in a couple of compounds [Jetté & Jones 2000: 652].
Distinct from possr=ʔoːt 'wife' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 65].
Degexit'an:nǝ=qʼoː=ɬ=o-n̥ ~ n=qʼoː=ɬ=o-n̥7
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 29; Chapman 1914: 215. Suppletive plural: n=qʼoː=ɬ=daɬ-ǝn. Polysemy: 'girl / woman'. Literally 'the one that causes (us) to walk around', see further notes on Koyukon tǝnaː=qʼoː=ɬ=oː-n̥ [sg.] / tǝnaː=qʼoː=ɬ=taːɬ-nǝ [pl.] 'woman'. This is the basic term for 'woman' with numerous examples.
The second candidate is the rare term ʂaːɬ-tʼaːn̥ 'woman' [Kari 1978: 29], not found in other sources. Morphologically unclear; corresponds to Koyukon soːɬ-tʼaːn̥ 'woman' q.v.
Distinct from possr=ʔoːt 'wife' [Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 28; Chapman 1914: 211]. In the Kuskokwim dialect, it sounds as possr=ʔoː 'wife' according to [Kari 1978: 28], although [Chapman 1914: 211] gives both variants, possr=ʔoːt and possr=ʔoː, apparently for the Yukon dialect.
Sarsi:cʼìkʰɒ̀ ~ cʼìkʰá3
Hoijer & Joël 1963: 73; Hoijer 1956: 222; Cook 1984: 67. Non-standard pl.: cʼù-kʰúɣɒ̀ ~ cʼì-kʰúwá 'women' with the suffix kʰuɣɒ ~ -kʰuwa, on which see further in [Cook 1984: 67].
Distinct from possr=cʼày-ɒ̀ 'wife' [Hoijer & Joël 1963: 71].
NUMBER:100
WORD:yellow
Hupa:taʔkʰʸaːw-nehwaːn1
Golla 1996: 110. A descriptive formation, literally taʔ-kʰʸaːw 'oriole' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 893] + 'it resembles'. As noted by Golla: "this is a recent term. In traditional times the color yellow was not distinguished from brown or red". Cf. čuŋ-nehwaːn 'brown' (literally 'muddy water' + 'it resembles') [Golla 1996: 14] and cʰeːl-nehwaːn 'red' (literally 'blood' + 'it resembles') q.v.
By contrast, 'yellow' is quoted as =cʰow in [Hoijer 1956: 223; Li 1930: 10], coinciding with the term for 'green' q.v. Thus it is very likely that =cʰow actually possessed the polysemy 'to be green / to be blue / to be yellow' in archaic Hupa. No terms for 'yellow' in [Sapir & Golla 2001].
Mattole:=cʰow2
Li 1930: 10, 110. Polysemy: 'to be blue / to be yellow' (actually 'to be blue / to be green (q.v.) / to be yellow'?). Adjectival formation: ɬi=cʰˈow 'blue / yellow'.
Bear River dialect: ɬi=čʰič 'yellow' [Goddard 1929: 322].
Kato:ɬ=čʰiːk3
Goddard 1912: 28; Curtis 1924: 203. An adjective-like deverbal form. Polysemy: 'red / yellow' (the meaning 'yellow' is only quoted in [Curtis 1924]).
Taldash Galice:=cʼoh4
Hoijer 1973: 71. Verbal root: 'to be yellow'. The adjectival form is ɬ=cʼoh.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:ti=tǝ=cʰik-i3
Kari 2007: 320, 361; Kari 1977: 254.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:ti=tǝ=čʰik-i3
Kari 2007: 320, 361; Kari 1977: 254.
Inland Tanaina:ti=t=čʰik-i3
Kari 2007: 320, 361.
Iliamna Tanaina:ti=t=čʰik-i3
Kari 2007: 320, 361.
TFN_NOTES:
In [Kari 2007: 319], two yellow-like colors are listed as basic for all the dialects: 'to be yellow-orange' (=čʰik) and 'to be bright yellow' (=cʰǝʁ). We treat them as synonyms. Final -i is the relative nominalizer [Kari 2007: 329; Boraas 2010: 17, 52].
Distinct from =cʰiq 'to be yellow-brown, light brown' (all dialects) [Kari 2007: 320].
Central Ahtena:=l=cʰoʁ5
Kari 1990: 394, 625.
Lower Ahtena: =l=cʰoʁ [Kari 1990: 394, 625].
Western Ahtena: =l=cʰoʁ [Kari 1990: 394, 625].
Mentasta Ahtena:=l=cʰoʁ5
Kari 1990: 394, 625.
AHT_NOTES:
Verbal root with polysemy: 'to be yellow / to be tan / to be brown / to be blonde'.
A second candidate is =l=cʰiːkʸ 'to be yellow-orange in color' [Kari 1990: 388], which is specified by Kari as "not productive, mainly occurs in nominalizations".
Rice 1978: 220, 429, 554; Hoijer 1956: 222. Hoijer quotes the 19th c. archaic variant {-kfwoy}. Verbal form 'it is yellow'; initial tè- is an adjectival prefix [Rice 1989: 617].
Tanacross:t=è=l=tθʰòx5
Arnold et al. 2009: 299; Holton 2000: 178, 206; Brean & Milanowski 1979: 22; McRoy 1973: 16; Shinen 1958: 18. Derived from the verb =l=tθʰòx with polysemy: 'to be yellow / to be brown'. Initial t= is the adjectival/gender exponent [Holton 2000: 237 ff.].
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):te=l=tθʰoː5
Milanowski, p.c.; Milanowski 2009: 72. Polysemy: 'green / yellow / brown' (specified by Milanowski "part of the broad spectrum of brown"). Nominalized verbal form: 'it is brown'.
There are two Lower Tanana expressions for the yellow part of spectrum: 'yellow-brown' and 'yellow-orange'.
1) The verb =l=tθʰʊx [neuter imperf.] / =l=tθʰux [transitional imperf.] / =l=tθʰuk [transitional perf.] with polysemy: 'to be yellow / tan / brown / blonde / green' plus the cognate noun-like adjective tθʰʊx 'yellow-brown' [Kari 1994: 314].
2) The verb =t=cʰik [neuter imperf.] / =t=cʰǝy̥ [semelfactive imperf.] 'to be yellow-orange' plus the cognate noun-like adjective cʰik 'yellow-orange' [Kari 1994: 290].
We treat both forms as synonyms.
Central Carrier:=l=cʰo2
Poser 1998/2013: 1002, 1223, 1262; Poser 2011a: 241; Antoine et al. 1974: 89, 340.
Koyukon:=l=ƛʰuχ5
Jetté & Jones 2000: 586, 1060; Jones 1978: 199. Verbal stem, also functions as the noun-like adjective ƛʰuʁ-ǝʔ. In [Jetté & Jones 2000: 586], glossed as 'to be yellow, tan, brown, olive-green, be the color of a smoke-tanned skin', but actually with polysemy: 'to be yellow / to be green'. Further see notes on 'green'.
Degexit'an:=tθʰʊʁ5
Kari 1978: 55. Verbal stem: 'to be yellow'.
Sarsi:=V=cʰúw2
Li 1930b: 24; Cook 1984: 166. There are two Sarsi verbs for 'yellow': =V=cʰúw glossed as 'to be yellow (green)' (this is not the expression for 'green' q.v., however), and =V=cʰáy 'to be orange-yellow'. Apparently they denote 'light yellow' and 'dark yellow' respectively. We have to treat them as synonyms.
NUMBER:100
WORD:yellow
Hupa:
Mattole:
Kato:
Taldash Galice:
Upper Inlet Tanaina:l=cʰǝʁ-i5
Kari 2007: 320, 361.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:l=cʰǝʁ-i5
Kari 2007: 320, 361.
Inland Tanaina:l=cʰǝʁ-i5
Kari 2007: 320, 361.
Iliamna Tanaina:l=cʰǝʁ-i5
Kari 2007: 320, 361.
Central Ahtena:
Mentasta Ahtena:
Dogrib:
North Slavey (Hare):
Tanacross:
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):
Lower Tanana (Minto):=t=cʰik3
Kari 1994: 290, 513.
Central Carrier:
Koyukon:
Degexit'an:
Sarsi:=V=cʰáy5
Li 1930b: 23; Cook 1984: 166.
NUMBER:101
WORD:far
Hupa:=saːt1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 782; Golla 1996: 24, 33. Verbal root with polysemy: 'to be far / to be deep'. Originates < *=saːt-i; the parallel light variant is =sah < *=saːt.
Mattole:
Not attested. Cf. the verb =cʰat 'to be deep' [Li 1930: 108], which corresponds to the Hupa term for 'to be far / to be deep' q.v.
Bear River dialect: not attested.
Kato:=se1
Goddard 1912: 38. Verbal root 'to be far'. Originates < *=sat, as suggested by the Hupa comparandum. Cf. the synchronically different verb =sat < *=sat-i 'to be deep' [Goddard 1912: 66].
Taldash Galice:=cah2
Hoijer 1973: 70. Verbal root, glossed as 'to be far away, distant, far away'. The adjectival form is ɬ=cah.
Distinct from the verb =man 'to be deep / to be full' [Hoijer 1973: 63].
A poorly documented term. Expressions for '(to be) deep' are not attested at all.
Central Ahtena:=zet1
Kari 1990: 458, 518.
Lower Ahtena: =zet [Kari 1990: 458, 518].
Western Ahtena: =zet [Kari 1990: 458, 518].
Mentasta Ahtena:=zet1
Kari 1990: 458, 518.
AHT_NOTES:
Verbal root with polysemy: 'to be far, distant / to be deep / to be long in duration'.
Dogrib:=wà1
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 47, 81, 164; Marinakis et al. 2007: 163. Verbal root with polysemy: 'to be far, distant / to be deep'. The latter meaning is quoted for the root variant =ʍàː [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 93]. The expressions for 'near' q.v. are based on this verb: =wà-lé-(á), literally 'not to be far'.
North Slavey (Hare):ní=wã́1
Rice 1978: 562, 566. Verbal form with polysemy: 'it is far (spatially) / it is far (temporally)'.
Tanacross:=θ̬áːt1
Arnold et al. 2009: 115; Shinen 1958: 22. Verbal root: 'to be far'.
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):nd=iː=θaːdn1
Milanowski 2009: 22, 74. Glossed as 'far away / distant in space or time'. Verbal root =θaːt 'to be far'; final ...dn < *...t-ǝ with the relativizing suffix.
Lower Tanana (Minto):=ɬ=ðʌt1
Kari 1994: 92, 401. Verb with polysemy: 'to be far, distant (spatially) / to be far (temporally)'.
Central Carrier:ni=ɬ=c̪aʔ2
Poser 1998/2013: 355, 704; Poser 2011a: 83; Antoine et al. 1974: 172, 307. Fossilized verbal form with polysemy: 'far, distant (spatially) / far (temporally)', from the verb =ɬ=c̪aʔ 'to be long (temporal)' [Poser 1998/2013: 794, 1219, 1252], further to =c̪aʔ 'to be light in weight'.
Koyukon:niː=ɬ=loːt1
Jetté & Jones 2000: 417, 904; Jones 1978: 59. Verbal form with polysemy: 'far, distant (spatially) / far (temporally)'.
Degexit'an:nǝ=ɬ=ðoːt-ǝ ~ neː=ðoːt-ǝ1
Taff et al. 2007; Chapman 1914: 220. Verbal form. Cf. some examples: "The mountains are far away", "binoculars (lit.: far away in it we see)" [Taff et al. 2007], "but now that they are far away, I kill but few" [Chapman 1914: 125], "While I was far from you, I was thinking about you" [Chapman 1914: 135], "And then far away she heard the sound of singing" [Chapman 1914: 164]
The second candidate is the more rare form ŋǝ=ɬ=ŋaːθ 'far away, long ways' [Taff et al. 2007] from =ŋaːθ 'to be long' q.v.
Sarsi:ku=ti=ni=sat1
Nanagusja 1996a: 128. Not a very reliable form, glossed as 'far away' in the only source. Initial ku= is the locative prefix.
Rice 1978: 260, 440, 510. Verbal stem: 'to be heavy'. Cf. the examples: "The box is too heavy", "How heavy are you?" [Rice 1978: 260].
The second candidate is =tà 'to be heavy' [Rice 1978: 301, 414] as in "That box is really heavy" [Rice 1978: 301], but according to Rice, this verb is only used in Hare localities (Fort Norman, Fort Franklin) contacting with other Slavey dialects.
Tanacross:n=táːθ1
Arnold et al. 2009: 145; Shinen 1958: 20. In [Holton 2000: 31, 350], transcribed as n-táːθ ~ n-táːtθ ~ n-tèːθ. Verbal form: 'it is heavy', with the adjectival/gender exponent n= [Holton 2000: 237 ff.].
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):=tɯːh ~ =tɯː1
Milanowski 2009: 21, 98, 120. Verbal root: 'to be heavy', cf. the frequently used deverbal adjective n=tɯːh ~ n=tɯː '(it is) heavy'.
Poser 1998/2013: 753, 1219, 1250; Poser 2011a: 110; Antoine et al. 1974: 313. Verbal stem: 'to be heavy'.
Koyukon:=toːɬ1
Jetté & Jones 2000: 146, 928; Jones 1978: 79. Verbal stem: 'to be heavy'.
Degexit'an:=toːθ1
Taff et al. 2007. Verbal stem: 'to be heavy'.
Sarsi:=kʰìɬ2
Li 1930b: 21; Cook 1984: 172; Nanagusja 1996a: 129. Verbal stem: 'to be heavy'.
NUMBER:103
WORD:near
Hupa:=tiŋ1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 751; Golla 1996: 65. Verbal root: 'to be close, near by'. Originates from *=tin; the perfective root variant is =teʔn < *=tin-ʔ-i.
Mattole:
Not attested.
Bear River dialect: not attested.
Kato:=tǝn1
Goddard 1912: 38. Verbal root: 'to be near, close'. The equivalent for 'to be nearby' is =tǝn-č with the diminutive suffix -c ~ -č.
Taldash Galice:
Not attested.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:
Not attested.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:χuʁ2
Boraas 2010: 20.
Inland Tanaina:χuʁ2
Kari 2007: 333.
Iliamna Tanaina:
Not attested.
TFN_NOTES:
χuʁ is an independent postposition. The final voiced spirant points to *-V which is apparently the negative suffix (see notes on 'not').
Distinct from the postposition with the more specific meaning 'nearby, beside': Upper Inlet yǝš, Outer Inlet yǝš ~ žǝx, Inland, Iliamna žǝx [Kari 2007: 334; Wassillie 1979: 67; Boraas 2010: 21].
Central Ahtena:ʁaːʁ-e2
Kari 1990: 203, 558.
Lower Ahtena: ʁaːʁ-e [Kari 1990: 203, 558].
Western Ahtena: ʁaːʁ-e [Kari 1990: 203, 558].
Mentasta Ahtena:ʁaːʁ-a2
Kari 1990: 203, 558. Regular assimilation -e > -a.
AHT_NOTES:
The form ʁaːʁe is a postposition. Final -e is probably the negative exponent (see notes on 'not' and [Kari 1990: 66; Kari 1979: 169]).
Dogrib:=wà-lé3
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 81, 191. Verbal root, glossed as 'to be near, be nearby, be close by'. Literally 'not to be far' with =wà 'to be far' q.v. and the negation -lé q.v.
The higher degree of closeness is expressed by =wà-lé-á 'to be very close by, be very near, be nearby' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 81] with the additional diminutive suffix -á [Marinakis et al. 2007: 152 ff.].
Distinct from the postposition possr=kà 'beside, next to, near' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 108] (with the example: "The groceries are beside the flour").
North Slavey (Hare):ní=wã́-lé3
Rice 1978: 191. Not reliably documented. Hare ní=wã́-lé 'near' literally means '(it is) not far' with ní=wã́ '(it is) far' q.v. It is found in only one example: "Don't go near the dog" [Rice 1978: 191].
A second candidate is the verb =h=tùw-è [Rice 1978: 303, 422, 521], glossed with polysemy: 'to be short / to be near', but not provided with examples for the meaning 'near'.
Distinct from the postposition =ɣá 'next to, nearby' [Rice 1978: 559; Rice 1989: 281] as in "He's sitting near me".
Tanacross:àː=x̬áʔ2
Arnold et al. 2009: 181; Shinen 1958: 22. Functions as a postposition. Semi-voiced x̬ should indicate that initial àː is a prefix.
Kari 1994: 119, 443. Verb with polysemy: 'to be short (spatial) / to be short (temporal) / to be near, close to'. Final -a (< -ã) expresses negative dimensional semantics, see notes on 'not'. Cf. Kari's examples: "it is close", "then as it was close enough to them to be visible".
A second candidate is the postposition obj=ʔʌɣa 'near, close to obj' [Kari 1994: 16, 443], cf. Kari's examples: "Golstream is near Cache", "they were not close to the Minto people".
We have to treat =l=kʊc-a and obj=ʔʌɣa as synonyms.
Central Carrier:xʷ=e=n=ɣoh2
Poser 1998/2013: 527, 823; Poser 2011a: 145; Antoine et al. 1974: 247, 320. There are two similar expressions, both with polysemy: 'near (spatial) / near (temporal)'.
1) xʷ=e=n=ɣoh (the spatial examples: "When they were near the bear den, they began to run back", "They are living close to Tache").
2) xʷ=e=n=ɣʌn (the spatial example: "They made camp close to the river").
Both of them represent fossilized verbal forms, initial xʷ= is the areal prefix. We treat them as synonyms.
Koyukon:obj=cʼu-χu7
Jetté & Jones 2000: 263, 667, 962; Jones 1978: 108. Cf. some examples: "he is standing close to her", "he is walking along near her", "The place is very near the river", "it (compact object) is close to the house", "it is closely sewn, with stitches close together". Originates from the areal noun =cʼǝn 'to, toward, at, in the direction of' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 664] + the clitic χu 'general area, the place where, the time when' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 262]. Since =cʼu-χu is the only expression for 'near' quoted in [Jones 1978], it is permissible to use it to fill the primary slot.
Other expressions for 'near' are:
1) obj=ʔoː-tʰoχ ~ =ʔoː-tʰǝ 'in the vicinity of, nearby, near to, next to', literally 'in separate places' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 38], cf. the examples: "he one who works for him lives near him", "he lives near his parents", "there are two fires burning next to each other".
2) obj=cʰiː-toːʁ-ǝ 'near to, close to, in the neighborhood of' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 137] < =toːχ ~ =toːʁ-ǝ 'preceding, ahead of, in front of' + cʰiː '?' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 623]. The examples are: "there were no people near them", "he was walking around close to the camp".
3) obj=noːt-ǝ 'around, near' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 489]. The examples are: "near the house, around the house", "you were standing near sth. (e.g., near a bear)", "the caribou were lying near the boulder".
Degexit'an:nǝ=ɬ=qʊʒ ~ nǝ=ɬ=qʊc-ǝ-tǝ4
Chapman 1914. Adverbalized verbal form from =quʒ (< *=qʊc-ǝ) 'to be short' q.v. This is the only form for 'near' found in the text collection [Chapman 1914], but missing in other sources. Cf. the examples: "Then, near the village, he changed himself into a man, and kept on toward the village" [Chapman 1914: 111], "Because, when there was plenty of game near by, up the river, I could get them" [Chapman 1914: 125], "She came near to the village from behind it" [Chapman 1914: 131], "Outside, near the house, she took off the skin, and removed the teeth also" [Chapman 1914: 134], "'Now', said they, 'get out, for the village is near!'" [Chapman 1914: 192].
The second candidate is obj=ʔoːʁ 'near, nearby, close' [Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 104]. Cf. some examples: "He will build his house near the bank", "Sit near me", "Sit close to the fire", "His house is close to the store" [Taff et al. 2007].
We treat nǝ=ɬ=qʊʒ and obj=ʔoːʁ as synonyms.
Sarsi:ku=s=čʰan-a8
Nanagusja 1996a: 128. Not a very reliable form found in one source only. Initial ku= is the locative prefix; final -a is the diminutive suffix -a ~ -aa [Li 1930b: 9].
NUMBER:103
WORD:near
Hupa:
Mattole:
Kato:
Taldash Galice:
Upper Inlet Tanaina:
Outer Inlet Tanaina:
Inland Tanaina:
Iliamna Tanaina:
Central Ahtena:
Mentasta Ahtena:
Dogrib:
North Slavey (Hare):
Tanacross:
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):
Lower Tanana (Minto):obj=ʔʌɣa5
Kari 1994: 16, 443.
Central Carrier:xʷ=e=n=ɣʌn6
Poser 1998/2013: 527, 823; Antoine et al. 1974: 247, 320.
Koyukon:
Degexit'an:obj=ʔoːʁ5
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 104.
Sarsi:
NUMBER:104
WORD:salt
Hupa:ɬeh=qʼončʼ1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 765; Golla 1996: 81. For the first element ɬeh- 'a sloppy object', see notes on 'sand'. The root qʼončʼ is not entirely clear (cf. the verbal root =qʼočʼ 'to be sour, salty' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 781; Golla 1996: 81]).
Mattole:
Not attested.
Bear River dialect: not attested.
Kato:ɬe=toːŋʔ2
Goddard 1912: 30; Curtis 1924: 203. Explicitly explained by Goddard as a deverbative from =toːn 'to be bitter', although there is no evidence for such a Kato verb in Goddard's data. The attested verb for 'to be sour, bitter' is =kʼoːc [Goddard 1912: 79].
Taldash Galice:
Not attested.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:nu-tʰi3
Kari 2007: 128, 290, 357; Kari 1977: 221.
Distinct from the special term for 'store-bought salt': kʼ=tʰu=ƛʼǝt-i [Kari 2007: 290], literally 'something that they pour into water' vel sim.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:nu-tʰi3
Kari 2007: 128, 290, 357; Kari 1977: 221.
Inland Tanaina:nu-tʰi3
Kari 2007: 128, 290, 357; Kari 1977: 221; Wassillie 1979: 84.
Iliamna Tanaina:nu-tʰi3
Kari 2007: 128, 290, 357; Kari 1977: 221.
TFN_NOTES:
According to [Kari 2007: 128, 290], nutʰi displays polysemy: 'saltwater / ocean, sea / salt (in general and as condiment)' in all the dialects, although in [Wassillie 1979: 69], the Inland term for 'ocean, saltwater' is quoted as nutʰi-ʔat, literally 'in nutʰi' with the postposition -ʔat 'in, on'.
Comparison to the Ahtena form (q.v.) suggests the analysis nu-tʰi ‘water of nu’.
Central Ahtena:na-tʰu-ʔ3
Kari 1990: 337, 581; Kari & Buck 1975: 147; Smelcer 2010: 79, 97.
Western Ahtena: na-tʰu-ʔ [Kari 1990: 337, 581; Kari & Buck 1975: 147; Smelcer 2010: 79, 97].
Mentasta Ahtena:na-tʰu-ʔ3
Kari 1990: 337, 581; Kari & Buck 1975: 147; Smelcer 2010: 79, 97.
AHT_NOTES:
Polysemy: 'saltwater / ocean / salt'. Literally 'water of na' with tʰuː 'water' q.v. The meaning of na is not entirely clear; theoretically na may be a contracted form of Ahtena *naːqʼ 'gravel bar, reef; mineral lick, salt lick (substance that animals like to eat)' (> non-Mentasta naːʔ, Mentasta naːq) [Kari 1990: 289; Kari & Buck 1975: 79; Smelcer 2010: 32].
North Slavey (Hare):lésìlí ~ lèsíl ~ léhsìlí-1
Rice 1978: 74, 168. Borrowed from French {le sel} 'salt'.
Tanacross:lsèl-1
Arnold et al. 2009: 221; Holton 2000: 142; Brean & Milanowski 1979: 20; McRoy 1973: 15. Borrowed from French {le sel} 'salt' [Holton 2000: 142].
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):seːl-1
Milanowski, p.c. Borrowed from French {le sel} 'salt'. Seldom used, according to Milanowski.
Scottie Creek: lìseːl 'salt' [John 1997: 43].
Lower Tanana (Minto):nʌ-tʰu3
Kari 1994: 247, 467. Polysemy: 'salt / saltwater / ocean, Pacific Ocean'. Literally 'water of nʌ' with tʰu 'water' q.v., the meaning of nʌ is not clear.
Central Carrier:lisel ~ lʌsel-1
Poser 1998/2013: 235, 240, 882; Poser 2011a: 177; Antoine et al. 1974: 131, 327. Borrowed from French {le sel} 'salt'.
Koyukon:soːlǝ ~ soːl-1
Jetté & Jones 2000: 740, 996; Jones 1978: 136. Borrowed from Russian solʸ 'salt'.
Degexit'an:toːʁǝyǝq ~ tʊʁǝyǝq-1
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 83. Borrowed from Yupik taʁyuq 'salt'.
Bear River dialect: =čet 'to be short' [Goddard 1929: 320] (to be read as **=čʰet).
Kato:s=woːl-č3
Goddard 1909: 116 No. 9. Browsing through [Goddard 1909] suggests that the meaning '(to be) short' is expressed by the forms s=woːl-č ("short sticks" [Goddard 1909: 116 No. 9, 117 No. 9]) ~ č=woːl-č ("short riffles" [Goddard 1909: 121 No. 8]) ~ š=wuːl-c ~ š=woːl-č ("short back-bone" [Goddard 1909: 138 No. 11, 142 No. 15]). The first element is not entirely clear, whereas the final -č ~ -c is the common diminutive suffix [Goddard 1912: 27]. It must be noted that in [Goddard 1912: 36], s=woːl-č is treated as a "pronominal adjective" with the meaning 'small'.
Taldash Galice:
Not attested.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:=ɬ=qǝcʼ4
Kari 2007: 101.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:=ɬ=qǝčʼ4
Kari 2007: 101.
Inland Tanaina:=ɬ=qǝčʼ4
Kari 2007: 101.
Iliamna Tanaina:=ɬ=qǝčʼ4
Kari 2007: 101.
TFN_NOTES:
Verbal root: 'to be short'. In [Kari 2007: 101], it is quoted in application to a person ("he is short"), but in the collocation "short hair" (all dialects) the same verb is attested [Kari 2007: 179].
Central Ahtena:=ɬ=tiy-e5
Kari 1990: 155, 586.
Lower Ahtena: =ɬ=tiy-e [Kari 1990: 155, 586].
Western Ahtena: =ɬ=tiy-e [Kari 1990: 155, 586].
Mentasta Ahtena:=ɬ=tiy5
Kari 1990: 155, 586. Final -e was regularly reduced.
AHT_NOTES:
Verbal stem with polysemy: 'to be short (spatial) / to be short (temporal) / to be low'. Final -e is the negative exponent (see notes on 'not' and [Kari 1990: 66; Kari 1979: 169]).
Dogrib:=kʼõ̀-ã́6
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 80, 208. Verbal stem with polysemy: 'to be short (spatial) / to be short (temporal)'. Final -ã́ is the common diminutive suffix [Marinakis et al. 2007: 152 ff.].
North Slavey (Hare):=h=tùw-è5
Rice 1978: 303, 422, 534. Verb with polysemy: 'to be short / to be near'. For the desemanticized verbal suffix -e see[Rice 1989: 816]. The examples are: "The tree is short" [Rice 1978: 259], "The days are getting shorter" [Rice 1978: 303].
A second candidate is =čòr-è 'to be short' [Rice 1978: 260, 438, 534] with the examples: "Her hair is short", "My mother is short" [Rice 1978: 260].
The difference between the two verbs is unclear; we have to treat them as synonyms.
Tanacross:=kʼôŁ8
Arnold et al. 2009: 231; Holton 2000: 351; Shinen 1958: 20. Verbal stem with polysemy: 'to be short (spatial) / to be short (temporal)'.
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):n=cʰuːl9
Milanowski 2009: 57, 83, 105. Verbal root with polysemy: 'to be small / to be short'. The only available example "One is tall and the other is short" may point to the specific meaning 'small in height (of person)' [Milanowski 2009: 57], but Milanowski, p.c., has confirmed the generic meaning '(to be) short' for =cʰuːl.
Lower Tanana (Minto):=kʊc-ã4
Kari 1994: 119, 473. Verb with polysemy: 'to be short (spatial) / to be short (temporal) / to be near, close to'. Also used with the "classifiers" =ɬ= or =l=. Final -ã expresses negative dimensional semantics, see notes on 'not'. Cf. Kari's examples: "short day", "it (stick...) is short", "it (rope) is short", "it (board) is short".
Central Carrier:=tʌkʷ5
Poser 1998/2013: 900, 1219, 1251; Poser 2011a: 185; Antoine et al. 1974: 328. Verb with polysemy: 'to be short (spatial) / to be short (temporal)'.
Koyukon:=quc-ǝ4
Jetté & Jones 2000: 221, 1004; Jones 1978: 144. Verb with polysemy: 'to be short (spatial) / to be short (temporal)'. Also used with the "classifier" ɬ-. Final -ǝ is a lexicalized negative suffix, emphasizing small dimensions, see [Jetté & Jones 2000: 5] and notes on 'not'.
Degexit'an:=qʊc ~ =qʊʒ4
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1976: 22. Verb with polysemy: 'to be short (spatial) / to be short (temporal)', according to the examples in [Taff et al. 2007; Chapman 1914]. Final -ʒ < *-c-ǝ.
Sarsi:=kʼʷɒ̀n-āā ~ =kʼʷan6
Li 1930b: 22; Nanagusja 1996a: 129; Nanagusja 1996b: 317. Verbal stem: 'to be short (spatial)'. Final -a is the diminutive suffix -a ~ -aa [Li 1930b: 9]. Cf. the examples: "These pants are too short" [Nanagusja 1996b: 313], "This has two short legs" [Nanagusja 1996b: 355].
Distinct from the verb =tùs-t-āā 'to be short', quoted without specifications and examples in [Li 1930b: 18] (-t- is the fossilized perfective exponent plus the diminutive suffix -aa).
NUMBER:105
WORD:short
Hupa:
Mattole:
Kato:
Taldash Galice:
Upper Inlet Tanaina:
Outer Inlet Tanaina:
Inland Tanaina:
Iliamna Tanaina:
Central Ahtena:
Mentasta Ahtena:
Dogrib:
North Slavey (Hare):=čòr-è7
Rice 1978: 260, 438, 534.
Tanacross:
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):
Lower Tanana (Minto):
Central Carrier:
Koyukon:
Degexit'an:
Sarsi:
NUMBER:106
WORD:snake
Hupa:ƛʼiwiʍ ~ ƛʼiːʍ ~ ƛʼiʍ1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 767; Golla 1996: 87; Golla 1964: 117. Polysemy: 'snake / rattlesnake'. The form ƛʼiwiʍ is original, ƛʼiːʍ and ƛʼiʍ are contracted; in the modern source [Golla 1996], only the latter variant is quoted.
Mattole:ƛʼiɣiš1
Li 1930: 133. Morphologically unclear.
Bear River dialect: ɬeɣaš 'snake' [Goddard 1929: 320].
Kato:
Not attested. Cf. the specific term ɬʔkǝš 'rattlesnake' [Goddard 1912: 90], which corresponds to the Hupa-Mattole generic term.
Taldash Galice:ƛʼaːš1
Hoijer 1973: 62 No. 301. Two terms for 'snake' are quoted in [Hoijer 1973]: archaic ƛʼaːš and descriptive ɬoː-čʰoh, both of them without additional specification. We treat them as synonyms.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:
No original term.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:
No original term.
Inland Tanaina:
No original term.
Iliamna Tanaina:
No original term.
TFN_NOTES:
There are no endemic snake spp. in Alaska. Among available sources, expressions for 'snake' are only quoted in [Kari 2007: 12, 26], where these are allocated in the section "Distant animals", where artificial neologisms are collected. According to [Kari 2007: 12, 26], the Common Tanaina term for 'snake' is ƛʼǝʁǝš, whose main meanings is 'bloodsucker, leech' (all dialects) [Kari 1977: 37] (missing from [Kari 2007]) and 'lamprey, eel (Entosphenus tridentatus)' (Inland dialect) [Kari 1977: 34].
In Outer Inlet, the loanword smiya ~ zmiya 'snake' is also attested [Kari 2007: 12, 26] < Russian zmiyˈa 'snake'.
Central Ahtena:
No original term.
Mentasta Ahtena:
No original term.
AHT_NOTES:
There are no endemic snake spp. in Alaska. Among available sources, an expression for 'snake' is only quoted in [Kari 1990: 220, 591], where the meaning 'snake' is additionally ascribed to ƛʼaʁes 'Pacific lamprey, eel'.
Dogrib:
No original term. There are no or almost no endemic snake spp. in the Northwest Territories. In [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 211], a number of terms for 'snake' is quoted, all of which look like artificial innovations, almost all of them based on the generic term for 'insect' kòː. These are: kòː 'insect, bug, worm, snake' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 48]; kòː né-čʰàː 'snake' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 48] (literally 'big worm' with =čʰà 'to be big'); kòː-čʰó [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 48] (literally 'big worm' with the augmentative suffix -čʰó), kò-tʼìː 'leech, snake' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 48]; also nàétìː-čʰó 'snake, serpent' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 76] (literally 'big bulldog fly' with nàétìː 'bulldog fly, large fly' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 76] and the augmentative suffix -čʰó).
North Slavey (Hare):rá=tù3
Rice 1978: 85, 171; Rice 1989: 170. Nominalized verbal form 'it crawls' from =t=tù 'to crawl' [Rice 1978: 359, 422].
Tanacross:
There are no endemic snake spp. in Alaska. The available sources do not quote any expressions for 'snake'.
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):
There are no endemic snake spp. in Alaska. The available sources do not quote any expressions for 'snake'.
Lower Tanana (Minto):
There are no endemic snake spp. in Alaska. In [Kari 1994: 128], the word ƛʼǝɣǝy̥ ~ ƛʼǝɣǝs from the Chena dialect is quoted with polysemy: 'arctic lamprey, eel / snake'. Its Minto counterpart ƛʼǝɣǝʂ is glossed simply as 'eel, lamprey' in [Krauss 1974: 12]. Apparently 'snake' is a recent artificial meaning for this word.
Central Carrier:ƛʼʌɣʌs1
Poser 1998/2013: 480, 915; Poser 2011a: 193; Antoine et al. 1974: 225, 330. Meaning specifically 'garter snake', the only snake endemic in the region, although can be used generally for any snake.
Koyukon:
There are no endemic snake spp. in Alaska.
Degexit'an:
There are no endemic snake spp. in Alaska.
Sarsi:
The only documented term for 'snake' is the morphologically unclear form nàtúzíɣá, glossed several times by Sapir as 'snake' in the tales “How Spotted Eagle and Crow-Flag brought home the medicine-pipe” and “The man who chopped a log into the river with his brother” [Sapir 1923]. The same form nàtúzíɣá is offered in [Hoijer 1956: 223] for the meaning 'worm' q.v. (Hoijer himself has relied on Sapir's unpublished materials). At the current stage, we prefer to leave the slots 'snake' and 'worm' empty.
NUMBER:106
WORD:snake
Hupa:
Mattole:
Kato:
Taldash Galice:ɬoː-čʰoh2
Hoijer 1973: 62 No. 298. Literally 'big tongue' with ɬoː 'tongue' q.v. and the augmentative suffix -čʰoh (see notes on 'big').
Upper Inlet Tanaina:
Outer Inlet Tanaina:
Inland Tanaina:
Iliamna Tanaina:
Central Ahtena:
Mentasta Ahtena:
Dogrib:
North Slavey (Hare):
Tanacross:
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):
Lower Tanana (Minto):
Central Carrier:
Koyukon:
Degexit'an:
Sarsi:
NUMBER:107
WORD:thin1
Hupa:=tʼaʔnyeː1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 790; Golla 1996: 96. Verbal root: 'to be thin (2D)'. Historically, < *=tʼanʔyeː, but the whole root is synchronically unanalyzable, cf. [Sapir & Golla 2001: 818].
Mattole:=čʼix3
Li 1930: 118. Verbal root 'to be thin'. The semantics remain unspecified by Li; thus, apparently with polysemy: 'to be thin 2D / to be thin 1D'.
Bear River dialect: not attested.
Kato:
Not attested.
Taldash Galice:=tʼaʔ1
Landar 1977: 295. Landar's transcription can also be interpreted as =tʼãʔ. Verbal root: 'to be thin'. The exact semantics and application remain unknown.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:=l=tʼun1
Kari 2007: 131.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:=l=tʼun1
Kari 2007: 131, 184.
Inland Tanaina:=l=tʼun1
Kari 2007: 131; Wassillie 1979: 101.
Iliamna Tanaina:=l=tʼun1
Kari 2007: 131.
TFN_NOTES:
Verbal root: 'to be thin'. It is unknown whether the lexical opposition 'thin 2D' / 'thin 1D' exists in Tanaina. In the examples in [Kari 2007; Wassillie 1979], =l=tʼun is applied to ice and silk, i.e., 'thin 2D'.
Central Ahtena:=l=tʼaːn-e1
Kari 1990: 341, 608.
Lower Ahtena: =l=tʼaːn-e [Kari 1990: 341, 608].
Western Ahtena: =l=tʼaːn-e [Kari 1990: 341, 608].
Mentasta Ahtena:=l=tʼaːn1
Kari 1990: 341, 608. Regular reduction of final -e.
AHT_NOTES:
According to Kari's example ("The plate is thin"), =l=tʼaːn-e means specifically 'to be thin 2D' as opposed to =ɬ=cʼeːqʼ-e 'to be thin 1D'. Final -e is the negative exponent (see notes on 'not' and [Kari 1990: 66; Kari 1979: 169]).
Dogrib:=tʰṍ-lé-á ~ =tʰṍ-lé4
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 16, 221; Saxon & Siemens n.d.; Siemens et al. 2007: 10. Verbal root, probably with polysemy: 'to be thin 2D / to be thin 1D' (in the only attested example, this verb-like adjective is applied to crackers, implying the meaning 'to be thin 2D'). Literally 'not to be thick' with =tʰṍ 'to be thick' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 16] and the negation -lé q.v. Optional final -á is the diminutive suffix [Marinakis et al. 2007: 152 ff.].
There is also a verb =pó-á 'to be thin' [Saxon & Siemens n.d.; Marinakis et al. 2007: 154], explicitly glossed as 'thin in dimension (metal, slice of bread)', that implies the specific meaning 'to be thin 2D' likewise.
We treat =tʰṍ-lé-(á) and =pó-á as synonyms.
North Slavey (Hare):=pèl-è5
Rice 1978: 219, 411, 544. This is the only found expression for '(to be) thin', with only one example: "I'm cold because my jacket is too thin" [Rice 1978: 219].
Tanacross:=tʼáːn1
Arnold et al. 2009: 267.
There are two documented verbs with the meaning 'to be thin', both only with examples for the meaning 'thin 2D':
1) =tʼáːn [Arnold et al. 2009: 267], cf. the example "rabbit skin is thin" [Arnold et al. 2009: 267];
2) =t=ɬ̬òn [Arnold et al. 2009: 267; Holton 2000: 352], cf. the examples "caribou skin is thin while moose skin is thick", "it is warm outside, so she is just wearing a thin shirt" [Arnold et al. 2009: 267].
We treat them as synonyms.
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):=tʼaːn1
Milanowski, p.c. Verbal root: 'to be thin'. Milanowski's only example points to the meaning 'thin 2D': tʰan̥ kʼatiːtʼaːn 'thin ice'.
Lower Tanana (Minto):=t=lʊs-k-ã7
Kari 1994: 180, 495. Meaning 'to be thin 2D' (glossed by Kari as 'inanimate is thin, membranous'). Cf. Kari's examples: "when the ice is thin", "then the caribou skins that seemed to be thinner were for undergarments". A denominative verb from possr=lǝs-ka-(ʔ) 'membrane, thin skin' [Kari 1994: 179], where -ka is a nominal suffix [Kari 1994: 106]. Final -ã expresses negative dimensional semantics, see notes on 'not'.
The only candidate for 'thin 1D' is the verb =cʼak-a glossed as 'to be narrow, thin, skinny' plus the noun-like adjective cʼak-a 'narrow' [Kari 1994: 295]. Cf. Kari's examples: "its leaves are narrow", "the ant came to have its narrow waist", "narrow strip of timber", "marsh hawk (lit. skinny legs)". Final -a (< -ã) expresses negative dimensional semantics, see notes on 'not'.
Central Carrier:=tʼan ~ =tʼon1
Poser 1998/2013: 956, 1222, 1260; Poser 2011a: 215; Antoine et al. 1974: 334. Meaning 'to be thin 2D'. Cf. the examples: "Some of the coins are thin" [Antoine et al. 1974: 232], "The hide I prepared is very thin", "The walls (of this house) are thin", "The plate is round and flat", "She is slicing the bread very thin" [Poser 1998/2013: 501].
Koyukon:=t=lus-k-ǝ7
Jetté & Jones 2000: 425, 1034; Jones 1978: 172. Denominative verb, meaning specifically 'to be thin 2D' (cf. the example: "The ice is thin"), although the original noun **lus-k 'membrane' is not retained in Koyukon, further see notes on Lower Tanana =t=lʊs-k-ã 'to be thin 2D'. Also functions as the noun-like adjective lus-k-ǝʔ 'thin 2D'.
Distinct from the noun-like adjective tʼoːn-ǝʔ 'thin 2D' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 553], which seems to be applicable specifically to leather.
Degexit'an:=tǝ=lǝs-k-ǝ7
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1976: 35. Only examples for the meaning 'to be thin (2D)' have been found: "They want that thin moose skin", "The ice is thin" [Taff et al. 2007]. For morphology, see notes on Lower Tanana, Koyukon.
In [Kari 1976: 48], the verb =tʼoːn 'to be thin' is also quoted with a question mark.
Sarsi:=tʼɒ̀ːn1
Li 1930b: 19. Meaning 'to be thin 2D' (glossed as 'to be thin and flattened out' by Li). Cf. the example: "thin cloth" [Goddard 1915: 211].
Distinct from =mìːl 'to be thin and spread out' [Li 1930b: 18], which we treat as 'thin 1D', although no examples have been found.
Distinct from =čʼákʼ-āā 'to be narrow, to be slim' [Li 1930b: 25].
NUMBER:107
WORD:thin2
Hupa:=tʼikʼʸ2
Sapir & Golla 2001: 791; Golla 1996: 96. Verbal root with polysemy: 'to be thin (1D) / to be slender, slim / to be narrow'.
Mattole:
Kato:
Taldash Galice:
Upper Inlet Tanaina:
Outer Inlet Tanaina:
Inland Tanaina:
Iliamna Tanaina:
Central Ahtena:=ɬ=cʼeːʔ-e3
Kari 1990: 404, 608.
Lower Ahtena: =ɬ=cʼeːʔ-e [Kari 1990: 404, 608].
Western Ahtena: =ɬ=cʼeːqʼ-e [Kari 1990: 404, 608].
Mentasta Ahtena:=ɬ=cʼeːq-e3
Kari 1990: 404, 608.
AHT_NOTES:
Proto-Ahtena *=ɬ=cʼeːqʼ-e. Polysemy: 'to be narrow / to be thin 1D / to be skinny'. Cf. Kari's example for the meaning 'to be thin 1D': "The rope is thin". Final -e is the negative exponent (see notes on 'not' and [Kari 1990: 66; Kari 1979: 169]).
Dogrib:=pó-á5
Saxon & Siemens n.d.; Marinakis et al. 2007: 154. Final -á is the diminutive suffix [Marinakis et al. 2007: 152 ff.].
North Slavey (Hare):
Tanacross:=t=ɬ̬òn6
Arnold et al. 2009: 267; Holton 2000: 352.
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):
Lower Tanana (Minto):=cʼak-a3
Kari 1994: 295. Meaning 'to be thin 1D'.
Central Carrier:=tat ~ =tot8
Poser 1998/2013: 956, 1219, 1250. Meaning 'to be thin 1D'. Cf. the available examples: "The rope is thin" [Poser 1998/2013: 125], "The alders around here are very thin" [Poser 1998/2013: 530].
Koyukon:=cʼaːq-ǝ3
Jetté & Jones 2000: 652; Jones 1978: 172. Polysemy: 'to be thin 1D / to be narrow'. Cf. some examples: "the stick or log is small in diameter", "The rope is small in diameter". Final -ǝ is the lexicalized negative suffix, emphasizing small dimensions, see [Jetté & Jones 2000: 5] and notes on 'not'.
Degexit'an:
Sarsi:=mìːl ~ =mìl-āā5
Li 1930b: 18. Meaning 'to be thin 1D' (glossed as 'to be thin and spread out' by Li). The final element is the diminutive suffix -a ~ -aa [Li 1930b: 9].
NUMBER:108
WORD:wind
Hupa:tʰeh=s=čʼeː1
Golla 1996: 107. Literally 'it blows along' from the verbal root =čʼeː 'to blow (of wind)' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 742; Golla 1970: 169, 201]. Names of specific kinds of wind are mostly based on the same root [Golla 1996: 107].
Mattole:
Not attested.
Bear River dialect: ta=s=čʼi ~ ta=s=čʼiʔ 'wind' [Goddard 1929: 322]. Corresponds to the Hupa form q.v.
Kato:wa=nǝ=n=čʰiː-ʔ1
Goddard 1909: 74 No. 2, 80 No. 12; Curtis 1924: 205. Literally 'it blows through' from the verb =čʰiː 'to blow (of wind)' [Goddard 1912: 74]. It is unclear whether =čʰiː is used outside this expression; the generic verb for 'to blow (particularly of wind), fan' is =yoːɬ [Goddard 1912: 62]. Note the sporadic de-ejectivization in the root =čʰiː < *=čʼiː.
Taldash Galice:ɬ=cʼĩː1
Hoijer 1973: 60; Hoijer 1956: 223; Landar 1977: 295. Nominalized form of the verbal root =cʼĩː, not attested outside this expression.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:ɬ=cʼǝy1
Kari 2007: 154, 361.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:ɬ=čʼǝɣ1
Kari 2007: 154, 361.
Inland Tanaina:ɬ=čʼǝy1
Kari 2007: 154, 361.
Iliamna Tanaina:ɬ=čʼǝy1
Kari 2007: 154, 361.
TFN_NOTES:
Historically, a verbal form ('it blows') from the widely used verb 'to blow (of wind), be windy': Upper Inlet =cʼǝy, Outer Inlet =ɬ=čʼǝɣ, Inland, Iliamna =čʼǝy [Kari 2007: 154].
In [Kari 1977: 139], Tanaina expressions for 'wind' are quoted as Upper Inlet qʰa=n=i=cʼǝy, Outer Inlet qʰa=n=i=ɬ=čʼǝɣ, Inland, Iliamna qʰa=n=i=čʼǝy, which represents synchronic forms of the aforementioned verb; in [Kari 2007: 154], these are glossed as 'it is windy'.
Central Ahtena:ɬ=cʼiː1
Kari 1990: 411, 622; Kari & Buck 1975: 90; Smelcer 2010: 127.
Western Ahtena: ɬ=cʼiː [Kari 1990: 411, 622; Kari & Buck 1975: 90; Smelcer 2010: 127].
Mentasta Ahtena:ɬ=cʼiː1
Kari 1990: 411, 622; Kari & Buck 1975: 90; Smelcer 2010: 127.
AHT_NOTES:
Historically, a verbal form ('it blows') from the widely used verb =cʼiː (< *=cʼiy) 'to blow (of wind; ɬ-classifier); to breath (0-classifier)' [Kari 1990: 411].
Dogrib:n=ĩ́=h=cʼí1
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 82, 230. Polysemy: 'wind / breeze / air'. A nominalized verbal form from =cʼí *'to blow (of wind)'; the verb itself is attested as =cʼí 'to turn, change direction (of wind)' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 37], =cʼíh 'to be blown about' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 60].
North Slavey (Hare):n=ì=h=cʼì1
Rice 1978: 82, 184; Hoijer 1956: 222. Nominalized verbal form from =cʼì 'to blow (of wind)' [Rice 1978: 473].
Tanacross:è=h=cʼèy̥1
Arnold et al. 2009: 295; Holton 2000: 353; Shinen 1958: 14. Glossed as 'it is windy'. Literally: 'it blows'.
Bear River dialect: koːh 'worms' [Goddard 1929: 322]. Corresponds to the Hupa form.
Kato:qoː1
Goddard 1912: 16, 20, 102.
Taldash Galice:koː1
Hoijer 1973: 56. Polysemy: 'worm / maggot'.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:
No original term.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:
No original term.
Inland Tanaina:
No original term.
Iliamna Tanaina:
No original term.
TFN_NOTES:
There are no endemic earthworms in Alaska. Helminths, intestinal worms (in mammals) are denoted by the collocation χviqʼ qiχ-ʔa [Kari 2007: 41; Kari 1977: 57], literally 'interior insect' with qiχ 'bug, insect (in general)'.
Central Ahtena:
No original term.
Mentasta Ahtena:
No original term.
AHT_NOTES:
There are no endemic earthworms in Alaska. In [Kari 1990: 200, 624; Kari & Buck 1975: 27; Smelcer 2010: 89], quːχ is glossed with polysemy: 'insect / bug / worm / monster / nickname for brown bear', but apparently 'worms in rotten organic' are mentioned. There is also another term, ʁaːkʸ 'worm(?)', attested in the collocation kʼʸecʰel ʁaːkʸ-eʔ 'tapeworm, intestinal worm (Cestoda)', lit. 'rectal ʁaːkʸ' (all dialects) [Kari 1990: 204, 624].
Dogrib:
No original term. There are no or almost no endemic earthworms in the Northwest Territories. Cf. the generic term for 'insect': kòː, glossed with polysemy: 'insect / bug / worm / snake' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 48].
North Slavey (Hare):kù1
Rice 1978: 59, 185. Glossed simply as 'worm'; apparently a generic term for this meaning.
Tanacross:
There are no endemic earthworms in Alaska. Cf. the generic term kũː 'insect, bug, worm' [Arnold et al. 2009: 153, 297; Holton 2000: 348; Brean & Milanowski 1979: 8.
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):
There are no endemic earthworms in Alaska.
Scottie Creek: Cf. the generic term kũː 'insect, worm' [John 1997: 44, 45].
Lower Tanana (Minto):
There are no endemic earthworms in Alaska. Cf. the generic terms kux 'insect, bug, worm' [Kari 1994: 115], further tǝčʰǝ kuɣ-aʔ 'tree worm' (literally 'worm of wood'). There is also a specific term tθʼak, attested in the compound tǝčʰǝn̥ tθʼak-aʔ 'wood worm', literally 'tθʼak of wood' [Kari 1994: 315].
Central Carrier:ʔʌsko3
Poser 1998/2013: 61, 999; Poser 2011a: 239; Antoine et al. 1974: 41, 340. This is a generic term for worm-like creatures, glossed as 'worm, larva, maggot'. In particular, ʔʌsko is the default expression for 'earthworm' (Bill Poser, p.c.). Morphologically unclear, can be a compound whose second element ko represents the more generic term kuʔ 'bug / worm' [Poser 1998/2013: 157, 999].
Distinct from čʰʌɬ-ɣʌs 'wood worm' [Poser 1998/2013: 102] and čʼʌnʌɬ-ɣʌk 'tapeworm' [Poser 1998/2013: 106; Antoine et al. 1974: 72], both morphologically unclear.
Koyukon:
There are no endemic earthworms in Alaska. Cf. the generic terms quːʔ ~ quːχ 'insect, bug, fly, worm' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 215].
Degexit'an:
There are no endemic earthworms in Alaska. Cf. the generic term qeːχ 'bug, worm, maggot' [Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 16]. In [Taff et al. 2007], the example "There are earthworms in my garden" is offered, where 'earthworm' is denoted by the expression qeːχ ŋǝθ 'long worm'.
Sarsi:
No expressions for 'earthworm' are documented reliably. The only known word for 'worm' (not specified) is the unclear form nàtúzíɣá in [Hoijer 1956: 223], although the same word is translated by Sapir as 'snake' q.v.
Not attested. Cf. kʰai 'winter' [Goddard 1912: 20].
Taldash Galice:kʰai1
Hoijer 1973: 56. Polysemy: 'year / winter'.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:χǝyi1
Kari 2007: 159, 361; Kari 1977: 146.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:χǝyi1
Kari 2007: 159, 361; Kari 1977: 146.
Inland Tanaina:χǝyi1
Kari 2007: 159, 361; Kari 1977: 146. In [Wassillie 1979: 113], quoted as χǝy 'winter'.
Iliamna Tanaina:χǝyi1
Kari 2007: 159, 361; Kari 1977: 146.
TFN_NOTES:
Polysemy: 'year / winter' in all the dialects.
Central Ahtena:χay1
Kari 1990: 212, 625.
Lower Ahtena: χay [Kari 1990: 212, 625].
Western Ahtena: χay [Kari 1990: 212, 625].
Mentasta Ahtena:χey1
Kari 1990: 212, 625.
AHT_NOTES:
Polysemy: 'year / winter' in all dialects.
Dogrib:xó ~ xó: ~ xóyé1
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 121, 232. Polysemy: 'year / winter'. xó: and xó are reduced variants of xóyé.
North Slavey (Hare):xài1
Rice 1978: 108, 186. Polysemy: 'year / winter'.
Tanacross:
The only source which offers an expression for 'year' is [Shinen 1958: 22], where the form na=ne=ʔ=te=θ̬et 'year' is quoted. Theoretically, it can mean something like 'it stands' from the verb ná=...=θ̬èt 'to stand' q.v.
Poser 1998/2013: 583, 1002; Poser 2011a: 241; Antoine et al. 1974: 287, 340. Polysemy: 'on top of snow / winter / year / birthday'. Literally 'on top of snow' with yʌs̪ 'snow' and the postposition -kʼʌt 'on'.
Koyukon:χoy̥1
Jetté & Jones 2000: 276, 1059. Polysemy: 'year / winter'.
Degexit'an:
Not documented reliably. Cf. χǝy̥ 'winter' [Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 49].